(3) Labeling Theory and Deviance

Labeling theory emerged in the 1960s, with Hershey writing in 1969, gaining prominence due to the social science climate of the time.
The lecturer uses a 1960s fashion show to anchor the theory to its historical context.
The theory marks a significant shift in thinking about crime and deviance, moving the focus from the individual deviant to how behaviors are labeled by society.

Senator Larry Craig's arrest in 2007 for lewd conduct illustrates the impact of social context on individuals.
Craig's behavior and subsequent denial ("I'm not gay. I have never been gay.") highlight the struggle between personal identity and societal expectations.
The historical context of moral panic in Idaho, where Craig grew up, including the conflation of homosexuality and pedophilia, may have influenced his internalized homophobia and repression.
Craig's voting record against gay rights, while allegedly being closeted, stirred anger in the LGBTQ+ community.
His story demonstrates the potential consequences of internalized hostility and societal labeling, leading to personal and professional downfall.

Moral panics involve exaggerated fears about a group that lead to irrational behavior.
Examples of moral panics include:
- The Canudos massacre (1893-1897).
- Century penis panics in China.
- Satanic day care center panics in Canada and the United States.
- The white slave traffic panic in Orleans, France.
- Comic books in the 1950s.
- Mods and rocker gangs in the UK in the 1960s.
- The war on drugs.
- Terrorism.
- Y2K.
Characteristics of moral panics:
- Concern: Heightened worry about a group or behavior.
- Hostility: Increased animosity toward the labeled group, which are then seen as "folk devils".
- Consensus: A widespread belief that society must address the perceived threat.
- Disproportionality: An exaggerated fear compared to the actual threat posed.
- Volatility: A quick rise and fall in public concern.
Moral panics are not dichotomous but exist on a continuum, requiring a consideration of scale.
Moral panics generally have some objective reality but involve exaggerated reactions.
Example: post-9/11 laws that intrude upon personal privacy.

Labeling theory suggests that the powerful in society create labels and affix them to the less powerful.
These labels can be internalized, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy, or rejected, leading to conflict with societal norms.
Labeling theory, also known as the societal reaction perspective, focuses on those with the power to label.
The theory posits that there is nothing inherently deviant about non-normative behavior; the issue lies in the act of labeling.
Labeling theory was inspired by symbolic interactionism in the 1920s and can be traced back to the Renaissance and Enlightenment.
Key concerns of labeling theorists:
- Sociohistorical development of deviant labels.
- Application of labels to certain people at certain times and places.
- Symbolic and practical consequences of labels.
Labeling theorists are interested in how labels are applied throughout history and how some groups are more likely to be labeled compared to others at various points in time and how such labels are impactful.

Howard Becker (1963) distinguished between rule creators (those on moral crusades) and rule enforcers (those concerned with applying rules).
Enforcers primarily aim to justify their position and gain respect.

Primary Deviance: Initial acts of norm violation that do not define a person's self-concept.
- Example: A child trying marijuana out of curiosity.
Secondary Deviance: Deviant behavior that results from the labeling process, used as a defense or adaptation to societal reaction.
- Example: A child labeled as a "pot smoker" who then uses marijuana more frequently in reaction to the label.
Labeling theorists argue that society is always complicit in criminal and deviant behavior, playing a role in causing secondary deviance.

People engage in deviant behavior for various reasons (e.g., curiosity, reward).
Society reacts to this behavior.
The individual may accept the label (role engulfment).
Engagement in secondary deviance.
Experience of stigma.
The deviant label may become their master status.
Master Status: A status that overrides all other identities and becomes the primary way a person is perceived.

Rosenhan, a Stanford psychologist, questioned whether psychologists could accurately diagnose mental illness or if it was simply a deviant label.
Participants (pseudo-patients) feigned hearing voices (saying "empty," "hollow," and "thud") to gain admission to psychiatric hospitals.
All were diagnosed with schizophrenia and some were held for up to 52 days.
Rosenhan argued this indicated psychologists' inability to properly diagnose mental illness.
Pseudo-patients experienced depersonalization and spent little time with psychologists/psychiatrists.
Fellow patients often recognized the pseudo-patients as fakers.
Rosenhan concluded that it was impossible to distinguish sanity from insanity within the hospital setting.
Every patient was identified as being schizophrenic except for one student who started taking notes while inside to gather notes for the professor and that individual was argued to be schizophrenic with obsessive compulsive disorder as well.
Rosenhan states, "There is nothing the pseudo patient can do to overcome the tag. The tag profoundly colors others perceptions of him and his behavior."

Decriminalize victimless crimes (e.g., marijuana use).
Adopt the policy of least restrictive control.
Avoid criminal records for youth to prevent self-fulfilling prophecies.
Issue warnings and cautions to young offenders instead of imposing harsh penalties.
Examples of youth justice legislation reflecting these principles:
- Juvenile Delinquency Act of 1908.
- Young Offenders Act of 1984.
- Youth Criminal Justice Act of 2003.

Causal Critique: Labeling theory doesn't explain the causes of primary deviance.
Normative Critique: (Functionalist Perspective): Deviance is not arbitrary; it violates real social norms.
- Example: Cheating on a partner is a real violation, not just a label.
Structural Critique: (Conflict Theorists/Neo-Marxists): Labeling theory neglects the role of capitalism in creating power imbalances that lead to labeling.

Symbolic interactionism, labeling theory, and societal reactionism are interconnected, focusing on how society constructs deviance.
This approach influenced conflict theorists, feminists, and critical criminologists.