AP Human Geography Notes

AP Human Geography Ultimate Guide Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

Key Concepts

  • Space
      - Defined as the geometric surface of the Earth.
      - Objects on the Earth’s spatial surface are characterized by their location and separated by some degree of distance.
      - Activity space: Refers to the area wherein activity occurs on a daily basis.

  • Place
      - A defined area of bounded space significant to humans.
      - Place-name or toponym: Assigned when human importance is recognized.
      - Types of places include urban areas, workplaces, resource locations, and transportation nodes.
      - Attributes of a place can undergo changes over time.
      - Sequent occupancy: Concept explaining the succession of groups and cultural influences over a place’s history.

  • Regions
      - A category of place, which can be further classified into urban, resource, and transportation nodes.
      - Regions are categorized into three groups:
        - Formal regions: Bounded areas with homogeneous characteristics.
        - Functional regions: Defined by their central place and the functional relationships it establishes.
        - Vernacular regions: Based on collective perceptions and mental maps by residents.

  • Scale
      - Describes the relationship of an object or place to the Earth as a whole.
      - Map scale: Ratio of map distance to real-world distance.
        - Examples: 1:50,000 (large scale) vs. 1:1,000,000 (small scale).
      - Relative scale (scale of analysis): The level of aggregation for analysis (local, regional, national, global).

Formal Regions

  • Examples of homogeneous characteristics include:
      - Common languages.
      - Culture regions: Tend to have fuzzy borders.
      - Political regions: Boundaries are finite and well-defined.
      - Environmental regions: Transitional boundaries known as ecotones.

Functional Regions

  • Areas with a central node or place serving a practical purpose (e.g., market areas).

  • Intervening opportunity: Closer attractions take precedence over distant ones.

Vernacular Regions

  • Based on perceptions; can vary significantly within the region.

Location Concepts

Absolute Location

  • Defined using coordinates (latitude and longitude).
      - Prime Meridian: 0° longitude through Great Britain.
      - Equator: 0° latitude.
      - Time Zones: Generally divided into 15° longitudinal zones.

Relative Location

  • Describes a place's location concerning known locations or geographical features.

Site and Situation

  • Site: Physical characteristics of a place.

  • Situation: A place’s interrelatedness with other places.

Distance Concepts

  • Further classified into absolute and relative terms:
      - Linear absolute distance: Measured in miles or kilometers.
      - Distance decay: Interaction likelihood decreases as distance from origin increases.
      - Tobler’s Law: Closer places are more likely to interact than further ones.
      - Friction of distance: Distance becomes a factor that inhibits interactions.
      - Space-Time Compression: Decrease in time and relative distance due to technological advancements.

Spatial Interactions

Central Places

  • Nodes of human activity often central to economic exchanges.

  • Central place theory by Walter Christaller: Analyzed city locations and economic exchanges through hexagonal market areas.

Patterns of Distribution

  • Clusters: Things grouped together.

  • Agglomeration: Purposeful clustering around a central point.

  • Random patterns: No discernible distribution logic.

  • Scattered: Normally ordered objects appear dispersed.

  • Linear: Straight line distribution.

  • Sinuous: Wavy line appearance.

Land Survey Patterns

  • Metes and bounds: Used until the 1830s, utilizes natural landscape features.

  • Township and range: Based on latitude and longitude.

  • Long-lot: Narrow frontage with a long shape behind.

Density Metrics

  • Arithmetic Density: Number of things per square unit of distance.

  • Physiologic Density: Number of people per square unit of arable land.

  • Agricultural Density: Number of farmers per square unit of arable land.

Diffusion Patterns

  • Hearth: Point of origin or innovation.

  • Expansion Diffusion: Originates in central place, spreads out.

  • Hierarchical Diffusion: Moves down from first-order to lower-order locations.

  • Contagious Diffusion: Spreads to nearby locations, predominantly along transportation lines.

  • Stimulus Diffusion: General principle spreads, stimulating new ideas/products.

  • Relocation Diffusion: Moves across significant barriers to a new location.

Geographic Tools

  • Scientific maps: Result from spatial analysis.

Types of Maps

  • Topographic maps: Show contour lines, urban features, and landscaping.

  • Thematic maps: Focus on specific subjects without showing landforms.
      - Choropleth maps: Show variability of a theme using colors.
      - Isoline maps: Calculate values over distances.
      - Dot density maps: Represent volume and density of features.
      - Flow-line maps: Show direction and volume of movements.
      - Cartograms: Simplified geometries for representations.

Map Scale

  • Linear Scale: Shows distance on maps.

  • Ratio Scale: Shows mathematical distance relationships.

Projections

  • Equal-area projections: Preserve area but distort shapes.

  • Conformal projections: Preserve shapes but distort areas.

  • Robinson and Goode’s Homolosine projections: Balance area and form at the cost of both.

Models

  • Spatial Models: Show commonalities in geographical patterns.

  • Urban Models: Illustrate city relationships and structures.

  • Gravity Model: Estimates transportation flow and area influence based on populations.

Geographic Technology

  • GIS: Utilizes data layers for spatial analysis.

  • GPS: Uses satellite data for navigation.

  • Aerial Photography and Remote Sensing: Used for collecting geographical data.