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Reminder to students about the paper on the Boston Massacre.
- Due date: Thursday midnight.
- Late submission results in a zero.

Majority opinion: American colonists held British soldiers responsible.
- Curiosity about perspectives: Was the siding influenced by national identity?
Personal perspective:
- No strong feelings towards the American Revolution.
- Acknowledgment of shared responsibility on both sides.
Arguments supporting British soldiers' responsibility.
- Testimony from former soldiers about trained troop behavior in civilian unrest.
- Discussion on appropriate conduct by civilians (e.g., throwing snowballs).

Drawing parallels to recent events in Minnesota involving protests.
- Query about actual physical confrontations during protests.
Discussion on how tensions escalate in such situations.
Example brought up involving ICE, handling of an incident with a woman, and subsequent violent outcomes.
- Emphasis on the idea that one conflict can be seen differently by various observers.

Taking a 'devil's advocate' position in debates on police and civilian interactions.
- Recognizing the lack of training in high-stress situations.

Outline of topics: Discussion on the Articles of Confederation as the first governing document.
- Central questions regarding governance:
- Power dynamics between central and state governments.
- Definitions of a republic vs. a democracy.
- How much power is allocated to the people?

Context: Post-Revolution, debates about government structure led to implementation.
Acknowledgment of existing land populations—specifically Native Americans—improperly termed as ‘unsettled.’
Establishes structure for how states interact and share power.

Confederacy vs. Federal System:
- In a confederacy, power lies primarily with individual states.
- In a federal system, power is centralized in a national government.
Example of a confederal system today: European Union.

Articles of Confederation passed by Continental Congress in 1777 but not ratified until 1781.
- Reasons for ratification delays: Disputes over land claims.

States characterized as:
- "Free, sovereign, and independent."
- Collaboration is limited to common defense and welfare.
Powers allocated to the federal government:
- Ability to declare war, negotiate treaties, mediate disputes, borrow money.
- Limit on taxing authority leading to federal issues of revenue collection.

Economic turmoil due to:
- Debt from the American Revolution.
- State debts leading to a burden on tax-paying farmers.
- Disparate state currencies causing market confusion.

Definition of powers not available to Congress:
- No ability to tax citizens.
- No authority to impose tariffs or raise an army.
- No regulation of interstate commerce.
Voting process in Congress:
- Required a supermajority (9 out of 13) to pass laws.
- Unanimous consent required for amendments, hindering background changes.

Weak executive system under the Articles.
- Notable: 16 Presidents before George Washington.
No judicial system at federal level; all disputes settled at state level.

Post-war depression and overproduction by British firms.
Growing debt underlined by inability to tax.
- Example: Federal government requested $8 million, states provided only $1.5 million.

Context: Economic struggles led to farmer protests in Massachusetts.
- Farmers suffered high taxes and foreclosure threats due to debts.
Open rebellion led by Daniel Shays against local governments.
- Lack of federal resources to suppress the uprising.

Alexander Hamilton's initiative to reform the Articles.
- Meeting called faced low attendance from states.
Resulted in recognition of need for stronger, unified governance and set grounds for Philadelphia Convention.

Reflection on the Articles of Confederation's inherent weaknesses leading to the Constitutional Convention in 1787.
Transition towards the U.S. Constitution as a response to the inadequacies of the Articles.
Homework reminder to submit the Boston Massacre paper by the deadline.