World History Period Review Flashcards

State Building and Cultural Traditions in East Asia from $1200$ to $1450$

Chinese dynasties during this period utilized an imperial bureaucracy to maintain and justify their rule. This system relied on a vast organization of appointed officials who carried out the empire's policies, ensuring centralized control. A key component of this was the use of traditional methods of Confucianism, which emphasized filial piety, social hierarchy, and the five key relationships. These traditions provided a moral and social framework that justified the emperor's authority through the Mandate of Heaven. Buddhism, specifically the Mahayana branch, reached China via trade routes such as the Silk Roads. Its core beliefs, centered on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to end suffering, shaped Chinese society by providing spiritual solace and influencing art, literature, and social welfare practices. Innovation significantly impacted the Chinese economy under the Song dynasty. Two critical technological developments included the expansion of the Grand Canal, which boosted internal trade and facilitated the movement of goods between the north and south, and the introduction of Champa rice from Vietnam. Champa rice was drought-resistant and could be harvested twice per season, leading to a massive population increase and a flourishing economy.

Developments in Dar al-Islam and South/Southeast Asia

Islamic belief systems and practices profoundly affected society from $c. 1200$ to $c. 1450$. Islamic beliefs, such as the requirement for pilgrimage (Hajj) and the emphasis on the study of the Quran, led to cultural and technological innovations. The Hajj encouraged travel and the exchange of ideas across vast distances, while the focus on education led to the creation of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad and advancements in mathematics (such as algebra) and medicine. Islam spread to North India through both trade and conquest. One primary method was the expansion of Turkish peoples and the subsequent establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, which introduced Islamic governance to a largely Hindu population. Muslim states and empires encouraged intellectual innovations and transfers through the preservation of Greek philosophy and the adoption of Indian numerical systems. In South and Southeast Asia, Sufism influenced the region by making Islam more appealing through its emphasis on a personal, mystical connection with the divine, often blending with local customs. Buddhist monasticism also played a role in shaping social structures and providing education. Governance in this region included Buddhist states like the Srivijaya Empire and Hindu states like the Vijayanagara Empire.

State Building in the Americas and Africa

States in the Americas developed and changed through sophisticated governing systems. There were six primary state systems identified in the era, including the Maya, the Mexica (Aztec), and the Inca. For the Inca, the government maintained authority through the Mit'a system, a mandatory public service labor requirement, and a highly centralized bureaucracy supported by an extensive road network. A key feature of their social system was the ayllu, a community-based land-holding unit. Culturally, the Inca are known for their worship of the sun god, Inti, and the use of quipu for record-keeping. Economically, they utilized terrace farming to manage their mountainous environment. In Africa, state systems such as Great Zimbabwe and Ethiopia developed distinct power structures. Great Zimbabwe maintained authority through its control over the gold trade and the construction of massive stone enclosures. Their economic system was heavily reliant on regional trade networks that connected the African interior to the Indian Ocean coast.

Political Decentralization and Social Organization in Europe

Europe during the period of $c. 1200$ to $1450$ was politically fragmented, meaning it lacked a single centralized government and was instead divided into many localized small kingdoms and manors. Feudalism was the dominant political and social structure, characterized by a decentralized system of land ownership and duties where lords granted land (fiefs) to vassals in exchange for military service. The manorial system was the economic arrangement that supported feudalism, focusing on self-sufficient landed estates. Serfdom was a key component of this, where peasants (serfs) were legally bound to the land and required to provide labor and crops to the lord in exchange for protection. Agriculture had a profound effect on social organization, as the reliance on manorial labor defined the hierarchy between the landowning nobility and the laboring peasantry. The predominant religion, Roman Catholicism, affected European society by providing a common cultural identity and exerting significant political influence over monarchs.

The Growth of Silk Road Trade Networks

The Silk Roads were a network of interregional land routes connecting East Asia to the Mediterranean. Growth in this network after $1200$ was encouraged by innovations such as caravanserai, which were roadside inns where travelers could rest and recover from the day's journey, providing safety for merchants and leur animals. Cities like Kashgar and Samarkand became vital hubs due to their central locations and access to water and food for trade caravans. New forms of credit, such as the use of bills of exchange and "flying cash" (early paper money), facilitated trade by reducing the need for merchants to carry heavy metal coins. Luxury goods traded included silk from China and spices from Southeast Asia.

The Mongol Empire and Afro-Eurasian Connectivity

The Mongol Empire, most influential in the $13th$ century, significantly altered patterns of continuity and change in Eurasia. Their expansion facilitated trade and communication by establishing the Pax Mongolica, a period of peace that secured trade routes across the continent. Beyond military fear, the Mongols established authority by incorporating conquered people into their administrative structures and employing local expertise. A positive impact of the Mongol rule, aside from trade, was the facilitating of significant technological and cultural transfers, such as the spread of Chinese gunpowder and papermaking technologies to the West.

Indian Ocean and Trans-Saharan Trade Networks

Trade in the Indian Ocean was encouraged by existing technologies like the magnetic compass and the astrolabe, as well as the dhow and junk ships. Admiral Zheng He, a Ming dynasty explorer, led massive naval expeditions that encouraged technological and cultural transfers between China and regions across the Indian Ocean. Swahili city-states emerged along the East African coast as vital trade centers, while diasporic communities of merchants (such as Arab or Chinese merchants living in foreign ports) introduced their cultural practices to new regions. Environmental knowledge of monsoon winds was essential for expanding trade, as sailors learned to time their journeys according to seasonal wind patterns. In the Trans-Saharan trade, technologies like the camel saddle encouraged interregional commerce in gold and salt. The kingdom of Mali, led by the famous Mansa Musa in the $14th$ century, facilitated trade by providing protection for caravans and establishing Timbuktu as a center of Islamic learning. Islam spread across the Sahara through merchant activity, often resulting in a blend with pre-existing indigenous beliefs.

Cultural and Environmental Consequences of Connectivity

Interconnectedness led to the diffusion of cultural traditions. For example, the spread of Buddhism into East Asia significantly altered social values and artistic expression. Scientific and technological innovations like paper and gunpowder originated in China and diffused through trade and conflict, ultimately revolutionizing communication and warfare globally. Travelers like Ibn Battuta, Margery Kempe, and Marco Polo documented their journeys, providing valuable insights into the diversity and connectivity of the Afro-Eurasian world. Environmentally, connectivity led to the diffusion of crops like Champa rice in East Asia and bananas in Africa, which bolstered populations. However, negative effects included the spread of epidemic diseases, such as the Black Death, which devastated populations along trade routes.

Administration and Expansion of Land-Based Empires ($1450$-$1750$)

From $1450$ to $1750$, land-based empires like the Manchu (Qing), Mughal, Ottoman, and Safavid expanded through the use of gunpowder and professional militaries. The Ottoman Empire utilized the Devshirme system, where Christian boys were recruited and trained as elite soldiers (Janissaries) or bureaucrats, ensuring a loyal, centralized administrative core. Rulers legitimized their power through various methods: European monarchs claimed the Divine Right of Kings, the Mexica practiced human sacrifice to satisfy religious obligations, and the Songhai promoted Islam to unify their diverse empire. Tax collection systems, such as the Ottoman tax farming or the Mughal zamindars, were used to fund state power. Art and monumental architecture, such as the Taj Mahal in the Mughal Empire or the Palace of Versailles in France, served as visual representations of royal authority and wealth.

Belief Systems and Rivalries in Land-Based Empires

The Protestant Reformation challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to religious fragmentation and prolonged conflict in Europe. The Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation) was the Church's response, aimed at reforming internal abuses and reaffirming doctrine. Sikhism developed in South Asia as a syncretic religion, blending elements of Hinduism and Islam. Political rivalries, such as the conflict between the Sunni Ottoman Empire and the Shi'a Safavid Empire, intensified theological splits within Islam and led to frequent territorial warfare.

Technological Innovations and Maritime Exploration ($1450$-$1750$)

Cross-cultural interactions facilitated the diffusion of maritime technology, such as the lateen sail, the caravel, and improved astronomical charts. These tools, influenced by Classical, Islamic, and Asian knowledge, allowed European states to undertake transoceanic exploration. The motives for European exploration are summarized by the "$3$ G's": God (spreading Christianity), Gold (finding wealth and new trade routes), and Glory (national prestige). Christopher Columbus's voyage, sponsored by the Spanish crown, is a prime example of state-sponsored exploration. Portuguese development of navigational skills led to the creation of a global trading-post empire, while other European nations followed under royal sponsorship to find alternative routes to Asia.

The Columbian Exchange and Maritime Empires

The Columbian Exchange was the global transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Positive exchanges included the introduction of calorie-dense crops like potatoes and maize to Europe and Afro-Eurasia. Negative exchanges were dominated by the spread of diseases like smallpox, which decimated indigenous American populations. Maritime empires established by the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French, and British restructured global trade. Some states, like Tokugawa Japan, responded with isolationist policies to restrict foreign influence. Colonial economies utilized various labor systems, including the Mit'a (adapted from the Inca), chattel slavery (where people were treated as property), indentured servitude, the encomienda system (granting land and labor rights), and the hacienda system (large private estates).

Mercantilism and the Atlantic System

Mercantilism was an economic policy where rulers regulated their economies to accumulate gold and silver and maintain a favorable balance of trade. This led to the creation of overseas empires and the use of joint-stock companies, such as the British East India Company, which allowed investors to pool resources and share the risks of exploration and colonization. The Atlantic System involved the Triangular Trade: textiles and rum went from Europe to Africa; enslaved people went from Africa to the Americas (the Middle Passage); and raw materials like sugar, tobacco, and cotton went from the Americas back to Europe. This system resulted in massive demographic shifts, including the forced migration of millions of Africans and the mixing of African, American, and European cultures. Resistance to state power occurred internally and externally, ranging from local peasant revolts to slave resistance movements.

Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution ($1750$-$1900$)

The Enlightenment emphasized reason over tradition and individual rights over absolute monarchy. Philosophers like John Locke proposed ideas about natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and the social contract. These ideas fueled revolutions, such as the French and American Revolutions, and reform movements like abolitionism and women's suffrage. Nationalism also emerged, leading to the creation of new nation-states. The Industrial Revolution ($IR$) began in Great Britain due to factors like access to coal, iron, and waterways. The development of the factory system concentrated production in single locations and led to increased specialization of labor. Industrialization spread to the United States, Russia, and Japan. Technological advancements like the steam engine and the internal combustion engine utilized fossil fuels to increase productivity. The second $IR$ led to developments in steel, chemicals, and electricity in the late $19th$ century.

Economic and Social Responses to Industrialization

Governments took active roles in industrialization; for example, the Meiji Restoration in Japan saw the government modernize the military and economy to compete with the West. Adam Smith’s theories of laissez-faire capitalism promoted free markets and led to the decline of mercantilism. In response to the harsh conditions of industrial capitalism, workers formed unions to demand better pay and conditions. Karl Marx proposed communism, involving the abolition of private property and class struggle. Socially, the $IR$ created a new working class and a new middle class (bourgeoisie). It also led to rapid urbanization, which created challenges like overcrowding, pollution, and the spread of diseases in cities.

Imperialism and Global Economic Development ($1750$-$1900$)

Imperialism was justified by ideologies such as Social Darwinism, nationalism, and the "civilizing mission." State power shifted as the British government took direct control of India from the British East India Company. The United States and Japan also acquired territories. Export economies developed in colonized regions, where the economy focused on extracting raw materials (like rubber or cotton) for industrial nations. Economic imperialism was evident in China, where British and French influence through the Opium Wars forced China to open markets. Forced and semi-coerced labor migration, such as Chinese and Indian indentured servitude, occurred as people sought work in plantations and mines. This led to the creation of ethnic enclaves and, in some cases, nativist backlash from receiving societies.

Global Conflict and Shifting Power After $1900$

The decline of the Ottoman and Russian empires was caused by internal economic weakness and external military pressure. World War I ($WWI$) was triggered by Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism ($MAIN$), specifically the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. It was a "total war," meaning governments mobilized all available resources and populations. New technologies like tanks, airplanes, and chemical gas increased casualties. The Treaty of Versailles ended the war but left unresolved tensions that contributed to the Great Depression and the rise of totalitarian leaders like Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler. World War II ($WWII$) was caused by the imperialist aspirations of Germany and Japan and the failure of the League of Nations. WWII concluded with the use of the atomic bomb and set the stage for the Cold War. Mass atrocities, including the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust, occurred during these periods of global conflict.

The Cold War, Decolonization, and Globalization

The Cold War was a period of ideological struggle between the United States (capitalism/democracy) and the Soviet Union (communism). Both superpowers used proxy wars (like the Korean or Vietnam wars) and alliances (NATO vs. Warsaw Pact) to maintain influence. Independence movements led to decolonization, with some nations negotiating for freedom and others engaging in armed struggle. The partition of India and the creation of Israel were significant and controversial outcomes of this era. In the late $20th$ century, globalization accelerated due to advances in communication (the internet) and transportation. The Green Revolution increased food production but had environmental costs. The global economy shifted toward a knowledge economy in some regions, while free-market policies under leaders like Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher became prevalent. International institutions like the United Nations and the World Trade Organization ($WTO$) formed to manage global interactions and trade.