Exam two
1955, Air Pollution Control Act,
authorized a research and technical
assistance program. Motor vehicle
emissions were first linked
conclusively to smog problems in
cities like Los Angeles.
1965, Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Control Act. Automobile
manufacturers given 2 years' notice
and a reasonable time to comply
with new standards.
1967, the Air Quality Act required HEW to designate national geographic
air quality control regions, while states adopted air quality standards
based on HEW criteria documents.
Each state was also required to develop an "implementation plan,"
set standards for individual sources of pollution.
EPA created Air Quality Control Regions and developed the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) determine the maximum
concentrations of designated "criteria" pollutants in ambient air.
EPA designated New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), establish
allowable emission limitations for various kinds of new stationery
sources of air pollution.
CAA Title I: EPA set up three different kinds of nationwide
standards.
National Emissions Standards for Hazardous
Air Pollutants (NESHAP; known as "air toxics") for which no
ambient air quality standards exist.
Hazardous air pollutants are defined as those contained in
an extensive list
1977 amendments: a pollutant subject to NSPS which is not
listed as either "hazardous" or as a "criteria" pollutant is
called a designated pollutant.
Primary standards: These are developed "allowing an adequate margin of
safety, [that] are requisite to protect the public health."
Health-based standards?
Secondary standards: "specify a level of air quality the
attainment and maintenance of which . . . is requisite to protect
the public welfare from any known or anticipated adverse effects
associated with the presence of such air pollutants in the ambient
air.
The 1970 CAA required EPA to prepare NAAQS for criteria
pollutants that hurt public health and
welfare, and result from diverse mobile and stationary sources.
Once EPA had developed the NAAQS, states were required to
determine how they can be attained and maintained by
developing a State Implementation Plan
Primary standards: developed "allowing an adequate margin of
safety, [that] are requisite to protect the public health".
Health-based standards?
Secondary standards: "specify a level of air quality the
attainment and maintenance of which . . . is requisite to protect
the public welfare from any known or anticipated adverse effects
associated with the presence of such air pollutants in the ambient
air."
NAAQS standards are implemented in three ways:
Nationwide, technology-forcing emission limitations on mobile
sources such as automobiles (e.g., motor vehicle inspection and
maintenance programs, catalytic convertors, and low-lead
gasolines).
Similar limitations on new or modified stationary sources of
pollution.
State SIPs that implement the NAAQSs through emission limitations
on stationary and mobile sources.
Dispersion techniques (tall smoke stacks that disperse the
pollution over a wider area) and
Intermittent controls (reduce emissions only periodically)
After 1970, EPA classified the country into "attainment" and
"nonattainment" areas concerning each criterion pollutant.
Attainment areas are those in which NAAQS standards have been
met.
Nonattainment areas are those where NAAQS have not been met.
Acid rain is formed when SO2 in the
atmosphere reacts with water vapor,
forming sulfuric acid.
The Lacey Act creates a federal violation of interstate
transport of many species taken in violation of the state,
tribal, or other federal laws.
The Wild Free-Roaming Horses
and Burros Act protects
these species on public lands.
Wikimedia Commons
Does this make sense? Where
did the "wild horses" in the U.S.
Most states have the equivalent of the federal ESA, which serves to
protect species (and habitats) at the state level.
Many of these include species that do not qualify for federal
endangered or threatened status.
Most states require a designation of "critical habitat" for the
species.
South Carolina: Nongame and Endangered Species Conservation
Act (S.C. Code 1976 § 50-15-10 to 90). This includes definitions and
criteria for listing endangered species and penalties
for violation.
Habitat Protection by the States
Some states permit "incidental taking" of listed species and HCPs:
Florida issues permits for the development of critical habitat, but
the activity must "clearly enhance the survival potential of the
species” (Rule 39-27002(1), Fla. Admin. Code).
California has the Natural Communities Conservation Plan (NCCP)
system to protect ecosystems
One of the earliest federal environmental laws is the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969
NEPA language was intentionally short and vague
Encouraged the development of a "common law" of NEPA.
But NEPA had unintended consequences and led to:
Forum shopping.
Inconsistent court decisions are based on the inclination of judges.
A Supreme Court that extended agency power, while lower courts
extended judicial power.
NEPA Sections
NEPA §2 [42 U.S.C.§4321]
Congressional declaration of
purpose:
Congress recognizes the
importance of the environment.
Establishes the Council on
Environmental Quality (CEQ).
Everglades National Park, Florida
Wikimedia Commons
NEPA Sections
NEPA §101 [42 U.S.C. §4331].
Called "Substantive NEPA".
Congressional declaration of national environmental policy.
NEPA §101(a):
It is the "continuing policy ... to create and maintain conditions
under which man and nature can exist in productive harmony ..."
NEPA Sections
NEPA §101
NEPA §101(b):
The federal government has a "continuing responsibility" to use "all
practicable means, consistent with other essential considerations of
national policy" to achieve six goals.
NEPA §101(c):
It is the responsibility of each person to contribute to preservation
and enhancement of the environment.
Is NEPA §101(c) the most promising?
Does NEPA §101(c) create an "enforceable right" to a healthful
environment?
NEPA Sections
NEPA §102 [42 U.S.C. §4332].
Called "Procedural NEPA".
NEPA §102(2)(C):
Probably the most important (and controversial) section of NEPA!
For each "major Federal action significantly affecting the quality of
the human environment" an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
must be prepared.
ALL federal agency actions are subject to NEPA requirements, with only
limited exceptions.
But can a court overrule a decision an agency makes on environmental
grounds?
Courts may over-rule substantive agency decisions if they fail a "good
faith consideration and balancing of environmental factors."
Agencies need not elevate environmental concerns above all other
considerations.
But courts may not substitute their judgment just because they are
unhappy with the result.
CEQ requirements and procedures are in NEPA Title II (42 U.S.C.
§§4341-4347).
What is the CEQ?
CEQ is an executive office.
Has three members chosen by the
President and approved by the Senate.
Members have training and experience
to interpret data and suggest national
environmental policy.
The Chair position is currently vacant.
CEQ's interpretations of NEPA are given substantial deference by
courts.
CEQ regulations are very controversial:
all EIS decisions must be made public;
an EIS must list alternatives to the proposed action and
an EIS must list all "relevant factors."
Executive agency, created in 1970
The current EPA Administrator is Brenda Mallory
The Role of the EPA under NEPA:
EPA has limited responsibility for reviewing and evaluating
EISs.
EPA generally does not produce the EIS (many EPA activities
are exempt from the EIS process!).
EPA determines the environmental acceptability of a
proposed action.
EPA (and the EIS) must comply with CEQ regulations (40 CFR
Part 6, Subpart J).
EPA may respond to an EIS with any of three responses:
1. Lack of objection.
2. Environmental reservations.
3. Environmentally unsatisfactory.
The adequacy of scientific information in an EIS may be:
1. Adequate.
2. Insufficient.
3. Inadequate.
Under what circumstances is an EIS required?
The elements that will trigger NEPA and the requirements for an EIS
ask of a proposed action (42 U.S.C. §4332(c)).
Is it major?
Is it federal?
Is it an action?
Is it significant? and
Will it affect the quality of the human environment?
EIS Requirements
Is it Federal?
Requires a federal nexus (connection).
General rule: If the agency has the power to influence the outcome
materially, then the action is federal.
Is it Major?
Regulations: the word "major" means "reinforces but does not have a
meaning independent of significant" (40 CFR §1508.18).
General rule: If it is not clear what "major."
is ... assume the action is significant!
Significantly Affecting the Quality of the Human Environment.
Regulations: based on "considerations of both context and
intensity," lists ten important factors, including the "highly
controversial" nature of impact (40 CFR §1508.27).
Some agencies define "significant" in their regulations,
which is used as guidance by the EPA.
Many court cases have resulted from individuals, groups, or
government agencies who are disappointed with an EIS
decision.
Environmental Assessments
If an agency is uncertain whether an EIS will be required or not, it
prepares an Environmental Assessment (EA) to determine if a full EIS is
required.
Contents of an EA include:
Environmental impacts of the proposed action.
(2) Alternatives.
(3) Mitigation of any adverse effects.
There are over 30,000 EAs prepared each year.
Who prepares the EIS?
EIS is prepared by the agency responsible for the proposed action.
Where several agencies are involved in an action, one agency (the lead
agency) with the most extraordinary jurisdictional responsibilities takes primary
responsibility for preparing the EIS.
Can the preparation of the EIS be delegated to a state? Yes, under
amendments to NEPA at §102(2)(D).
It probably cannot be delegated to the applicant (usually a private party
who stands to benefit from the action), too self-serving.
It is probably okay for the EIS to be prepared by the applicant's
consultants because it is not self-serving.
Scope of the EIS. Agencies concerned about segmentation or breaking
up one large project into several small ones to avoid cumulatively
impact problems.
Hypothetical:
Suppose we wish to construct a luxury spa with amenities: parking,
restaurant, tennis, and golf.
Is it federal? What if we accept a $10,000 grant from CDC to study
exercise?
If the collective impact of the entire project is unacceptable, can we
apply for separate EISs for each amenity because their impact is
acceptable?
The segmentation problem:
Since the collective impact of the entire project is not acceptable, can we
Apply for separate EISs for each amenity to minimize impact.
EIS must discuss the environmental impacts of the proposed action.
The broad range of impacts discussed includesludes crime, emotional and
physical isolation, and aesthetic considerations.
Remote, highly speculative impacts need not be considered.
Discussion must be explanatory and written in layperson's language.
Responsible opposing views must be presented.
EIS must have sufficient information regarding environmental costs and
consequences.
A worst-case analysis is usually not necessary.
Substantive Review. May a court reverse agency actions if the action
Is it offensive to the substantive requirements of NEPA?
NEPA §101 seems to create substantive duties.
However, the U.S. Supreme Court held that a court's only role is to see
that the agency considered the environmental consequences of the
proposed action.
Procedural Review. May a court reverse a decision in favor of an agency
action for failure to follow NEPA's procedural requirements?
Courts have held that NEPA is "essentially procedural."
"NEPA merely prohibits uninformed - not unwise - agency action."
(Robertson v. Methow Valley Citizens Council).
Courts take a "hard look" at agency actions affecting the environment.
Environmental groups have standing to sue if:
Members suffer injury to esthetic, conservation, or economic
interests;
Members use a wilderness area for recreation or
Noise and air pollution would harm members' health or
conservation interests.
Environmental groups lack standing if interests are too abstract
or remote, or if members do not show personal injury.
Animals do not have standing under NEPA.
Damages.
Virtually impossible under NEPA.
It may be available under everyday law actions.
2. Permanent Injunction.
Virtually impossible under NEPA.
3. Temporary Injunction (TI).
Most common form of relief in NEPA cases.
NEPA §102(2)(f): Federal agencies must “recognize the
worldwide and long-range character of environmental
problems."
1979, President Carter issued an Executive Order that required a
less demanding procedure (such as an Environmental
Assessment) for most federal actions.
Many agency actions are exempted. There is no private "cause
of action" by plaintiffs wishing to challenge a federal agency's
decision.
Although NEPA's international reach remains a question, NEPA
has been an important international role model.
Still, the chief statute for citizens protecting the
environment.
Critics argue that NEPA is just a delaying tactic.
Established in 1992 (scattered 40 CFR).
Designed to inspire confidence in the "fairness of
agency adjudication" in administrative trials (litigants
must "exhaust all administrative remedies").
EAB: Three senior attorneys. Allows immediate appeals
of agency decisions without the time expense of a
formal trial.
Over 500 appeals and written opinions have been
published.
Substances in the air that can cause damage to organisms are called
Pollutants and their presence is air pollution.
However, there are different kinds of air pollutants, depending on their
source.
Natural air pollutants are produced by biological and chemical
processes.
It can include high concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), sulfur and nitrogen
oxides (from fires and volcanoes), and even CO2.
The actions of humans produce anthropogenic air pollutants.
It can result from industry, vehicles, farming, etc. We will concentrate
on these.
Primary Air Pollutant:
A harmful substance that is
emitted directly into the
atmosphere
Secondary Air Pollutant:
Harmful substances formed in
the atmosphere when a
primary air pollutant reacts
with substances normally found
in the atmosphere or with
other air pollutants
Two primary sources
Transportation
Industry
Intentional forest fires
are also an important
contributor
Effects of Air Pollution on Ecosystems and Biological Diversity in
the Eastern United States, Lovett et al. From: The Year in Ecology
And Conservation Biology (2009).
This is a scholarly article. You are responsible for the first 5 1/2
pages (p. 99-105), but I hope you will read more!
Air pollution, ecosystems, and biodiversity. This is a short web
page by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
(UNECE). It's just four paragraphs, but it says a lot.
Air Pollution Affects Ecosystems
A robust body of research links the negative impacts that air pollution can
have on natural ecosystems.
For example:
Pollutants such as sulfur can lead to excess acid levels in lakes and
streams and damage trees and forest soils.
Atmospheric nitrogen can reduce the biodiversity of plant communities
and harm fish and other aquatic life.
3. Ozone damages tree leaves and negatively affects
scenic vistas in protected natural areas.
Mercury and other heavy metal compounds emitted
as exhaust from fuel combustion can eventually
accumulate in plants and animals, some of which are consumed by people.
Damage from air pollution is usually presented as health
effects on humans
Low-level exposure
Irritates eyes
Causes inflammation of the respiratory tract
Can develop into chronic respiratory diseases
Sulfur Dioxide and Particulate material
Irritate respiratory tract and impair the ability of lungs to
exchange gases
Nitrogen Oxides
Causes airway restriction
Carbon monoxide
Binds with iron in blood hemoglobin
Causes headache, fatigue, drowsiness, death
Ozone
Causes burning eyes, coughing, and chest discomfort
Air pollution threats to children
More significant health threat to children than adults
Air pollution can restrict lung development
Children breathe more often than adults
Children who live in high ozone areas are more likely to develop
asthma
Smog: An intense
concentration of air
pollutants that threaten
health and the
environment
Smog is a photochemical
haze caused by the action
of solar ultraviolet
radiation on an
atmosphere polluted with
hydrocarbons and oxides of
nitrogen
Sulfurous smog
Also called "London smog."
Results from a high concentration of sulfur oxides in the air
This is caused by the use of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal.
Aggravated by dampness and a high concentration of suspended particulate matter in
the air.
Photochemical smog
Also known as "Los Angeles smog."
Occurs typically in urban areas with many vehicles.
Requires neither smoke nor fog.
Has its origin in nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbon vapors emitted by automobiles and
other sources, which then undergo photochemical reactions in the lower atmosphere.
How pollutants are formed
from burning coal and oil,
leading to sulfur smog, also
called London smog.
Some natural events, like
volcanoes and fires, also
contribute
Sunlight Plus Transportation Equals
Photochemical Smog
Photochemical Smog
Chemical composition
Sources
VOCs + NOx + Heat + Sunlight yields
Ground level O3 (ozone) and other
photochemical oxidants
Aldehydes
Other secondary pollutants
Smog is a worldwide
problem.
Photochemical
Smog in Santiago,
Chile
Total Suspended Particulates (TSPs, PM2.5).
Solid particles or liquid droplets that remain suspended in the air, with
diameters of 2.5μ or smaller.
Small particles are a greater health risk than larger particles.
This can be reduced by:
(a) electrostatic precipitators;
(b) scrubbers; or
(c) fabric filters.
2001 the U.S. Supreme upheld the EPA's TSP and ozone standards.
There are several techniques to reduce
air pollution at the source
Electrostatic precipitators – use
electrical charges to attract and
remove pollutants.
Smokestacks with scrubbers – use
liquid, fabric, or paper filters; may
use chemicals to neutralize
pollutants.
Smokestacks without (left) and with (right) electrostatic precipitators
Phase I Vapor Recovery System for Gasoline
The federal Clean Air Act recognizes six Criteria Pollutants that receive
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Lead (PB)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Ozone (O3) at ground-level
Particle pollution (often referred to as particulate matter)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
The original list included "hydrocarbons," but it was dropped
because the causation of health effects was difficult to prove.
"Lead" was subsequently added following several court decisions
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2).
80% result from fossil fuel combustion (primarily electric utilities),
20% from the smelting of ores.
A significant source of "acid rain" (National Acid Precipitation Abatement
Program, NAPAP).
SO2 can be reduced by:
(a) use of low-sulfur fuels;
(b) scrubbers; and
(c) catalytic conversion to sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Health effects: heart and lung diseases.
Economic damage: damage to structures and vehicles, reduced
visibility.
Nitrogen Oxides (NO, NO2 = "NOx").
NOx emissions can be reduced by reducing the combustion
temperatures of fossil fuels, and scrubbers.
Health effects: exacerbates heart, lung, kidney, and cardiovascular
diseases.
Economic damage: impairs visibility, damages coatings (paints and
dyes), interferes with plant and animal growth and contributes to acid
rain.
Carbon Monoxide (CO).
Most CO production results from the incomplete combustion of fossil
fuels.
CO emissions can be reduced with the use of catalytic converters or
thermal exhaust conversion on motor vehicles.
Health effects: CO binds to hemoglobin in the blood, displacing oxygen.
This causes damage to the respiratory and cardiovascular systems,
reduces mental functions, and alters fetal development.
Ozone (O3).
A "photochemical oxidant."
Occurs in the stratosphere (good) and ground level (insufficient). Why?
50% results from industrial sources, and 50% from motor vehicles.
Controlled indirectly by decreasing emissions of NOx, SO2, and VOCs
(gasoline recapture pumps.
Health effects: aggravates respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
Economic effects: decreased visibility and damage to respiratory systems.
EPA's current ozone standards allow 0.08 parts per million (ppm),
averaged over eight hours.
The land is held in trust for the American people by the federal government
and managed by federal agencies, including:
Bureau of Land Management (BLM)
U.S. National Park Service (NPS)
Bureau of Reclamation
U.S Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)
U.S. Forest Service
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
U.S. Department of Defense (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers)
State and local government agencies often share jurisdiction with
Federal lands in the United
States. Approximately 42
percent of the land in the
The United States is publicly
owned, with 25 percent of
the nation's land owned by
the federal government.
Most were acquired early in U.S. history from purchases, wars,
or treaties made with foreign countries.
The federal government used this land to encourage growth,
settlement, and economic development.
Land that was not developed, homesteaded, or sold remained in
federal ownership as public land.
Today, principles of land use planning and environmental
protection preserves the natural resources and scenic beauty
found on public land.
Every human use of land alters it in some way.
People do not always agree on land use and management
priorities.
Understanding land use and management issues requires the use of
three key concepts:
The Tragedy of the Commons effect
Externalities
Maximum sustainable yield
Tragedy of the commons: The tendency of a shared, limited resource
to become depleted because people act out in self-interest for
short-term gain.
When many people share a common resource without agreement on
or regulation of its use, it is likely to become overused very quickly.
The Tragedy of the Commons. If the use of common land is not regulated in
some way—by the users or by a government agency—the land can easily be
degraded to the point at which it can no longer support that use.
Economists originally developed the concept of externalities,
but it has broad applications to environmental biology and law.
Externality: A side effect or consequence of an industrial or
commercial activity that affects other parties without this being
reflected in the cost of the goods or services involved, such as the
pollination of surrounding crops by bees kept for honey.
Environmental biology and law are concerned with negative
externalities because of the environmental damage for which no one
bears the cost.
Maximum sustainable yield (MSY): The maximum amount of a
renewable resources (crops, fish, game, etc.) that can be
harvested without compromising the future availability of that
resource.
Maximum sustainable yield varies, depending on the nature of
the resource.
In theory, harvesting the MSY should be sustainable. In reality it
is very difficult to calculate MSY.
Even when we do calculate MSY, it can take months or years to
determine whether a yield is genuinely sustainable.
Every population has a point
at which a maximum number
of individuals can be
harvested sustainably. That
point is often reached when
the population size is about
one-half the carrying capacity.
This is a logistic growth curve. It shows that populations grow slowly at first, then more rapidly
in the middle and slowly again as they approach the Carrying Capacity (the absolute maximum
that environment can support that).
Protected land and
marine areas of the
world. Protected
areas are distributed
around the globe.
The United Nations recognizes six categories of public
lands:
National parks are managed for scientific, educational,
and recreational use, and sometimes for their beauty or
unique landforms.
Managed Resource Protected Areas are designated for
the sustained use of biological, mineral, and recreational
resources.
Habitat/Species Management Areas are actively
managed to maintain biological communities.
Strict Nature Reserves and Wilderness Areas are set aside to protect
species and ecosystems.
Protected Landscapes and Seascapes permit non-destructive use of
natural resources while allowing for tourism and recreation.
National Monuments are designated to protect unique sites of
special natural or cultural interests.
Uses of public lands is a controversial topic! These uses are often
historic, but in many cases, they adapt to current conditions.
Historically, public land uses were regulated by the following:
Resource conservation ethic The belief that people should maximize
use of resources based on the greatest good for everyone.
Multiple-use lands: A U.S. classification used to designate lands that
may be used for recreation, grazing, timber harvesting,
Public lands are usually available for private uses, including:
Recreation
It may be more or less restrictive
Includes wildlife watching and hiking, fishing and hunting
Vehicle uses may be limited
Grazing of livestock - Usually restricted to leases, often controversial
Timber harvesting – Heavily regulated, requires leases
Oil and gas drilling – VERY controversial
Mining – A common source of litigation
Only designated
Wilderness Areas
prohibit most private
uses
Wilderness area was
defined by the 1964
Wilderness Act
Land use in the
United States.
Public and private
land in the United
States is used for
many purposes.
More than 95 percent of all federal lands are managed by just four
federal agencies.
Bureau of Land Management (BLM): grazing, mining, timber
harvesting and recreation
U.S. Forest Service (USFS): timber harvesting, grazing, and
recreation
National Park Service (NPS): recreation and conservation.
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS): conservation, hunting, and
recreation
Land management practices vary according to land use
Management issues differ for rangelands, forests, and parks.
Let's look at forest management practices as an example.
This is the Francis Marion
National Forest, in South
Carolina.
The forest is managed for a
variety of uses, including:
Logging
Hunting
Fishing
Hiking
Forest Land dominated by trees and other woody vegetation and
sometimes used for commercial logging.
Approximately 73 percent of the forests used for commercial timber
operations in the U.S. are privately owned.
Timber harvest practices include clear-cutting and selective cutting:
Clear-cutting: A method of harvesting trees that removes all or
almost all trees in an area.
Selective cutting The method of harvesting trees involves
removing single trees or a small number of trees from many in a
forest.
Timber harvest practices.
Clear-cutting removes most, if not all, trees from an
area and is often coupled with replanting. The
resulting trees are then all the same age.
In selective cutting, single trees or small numbers of
trees are harvested. The resulting forest consists of
trees of varying ages.
Ecologically sustainable forestry is an approach to
removing trees from forests in ways that do not
unduly affect the viability of other trees.
Timber production presents ecological challenges.
All logging disrupts habitat.
Logging often replaces complex forest ecosystems with tree
plantations.
Tree plantation: A large area
typically planted with a single
rapidly growing tree species.
Fire Management
In many ecosystems, fire is a natural process for recycling nutrients.
Humans have followed a number of fire management policies.
USFWS
Prescribed burn: A fire
deliberately set under
controlled conditions in order
to reduce the accumulation of
dead biomass on a forest floor.
Prescribed burns help reduce
the risk of uncontrolled natural
fires.
Proper fire management can help prevent
massively destructive fires, like those that
have plagued the western U.S. in recent
years.
National parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness areas make up a large
part of public forests in the U.S.
National Parks are managed for scientific, educational, aesthetic, and
recreational use.
Human overuse can harm the environmental features that attract visitors.
National Wildlife Refuge: This is a federal public land managed for the
primary purpose of protecting wildlife.
National wilderness area: An area set aside with the intent of
preserving a large tract of intact ecosystem or a landscape.
Residential land use is expanding all over the U.S.
Management of residential areas to maintain ecosystem values is a
particular challenge.
Suburb: An area surrounding a metropolitan center with a
comparatively low population density.
Exurb: An area similar to a suburb but unconnected to any central city
or densely populated areas.
Since 1950, more than 90 percent of the population growth in
metropolitan areas have occurred in suburbs, and two out of three
people now live in suburban or exurban communities.
Causes and Consequences of Urban Sprawl
Urban sprawl Urbanized areas that spread into rural areas, removing
clear boundaries between the two.
Urban sprawl has four primary sources:
Automobiles and highway construction
Living costs
Urban blight
Government policies
Urban blight The degradation of the built and social environments of
the city that often accompanies and accelerates migration to the
suburbs.
Urban blight.
As people move away from a city
to suburbs and exurbs, the city
often deteriorates, which causes
yet more people to leave. This
cycle is an example of a positive
feedback system. (The green
arrow indicates the starting point
of the cycle.)
As a result, environmental
values often deteriorate.
Induced demand as a cause
of traffic congestion and
urban sprawl.
The use of gasoline tax money
to build highways leads to the
development of suburbs and
traffic congestion, at which
point yet more money is spent
on highways to alleviate the
congestion. (The green arrow
indicates the starting point of
the cycle.)
Environmental deterioration
often follows.
Smart growth: A set of principles for community planning that focuses on strategies to
encourage the development of sustainable, healthy communities.
Smart growth follows ten principles :
1. Create mixed land uses.
2. Create a range of housing opportunities and choices.
3. Create walkable neighborhoods.
4. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions.
5. Take advantage of compact building design.
6. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place.
7. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas.
8. Provide a variety of transportation choices.
9. Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities.
10. Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost-effective.
The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 initiated a research program linking motor vehicle emissions to smog in cities like Los Angeles. The 1965 Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act enforced new standards for automobile manufacturers, while the 1967 Air Quality Act established geographic air quality control regions. The EPA created National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to set maximum concentrations for criteria pollutants and designated New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for stationary sources. The Clean Air Act required states to create implementation plans to meet NAAQS, classifying areas into attainment and nonattainment based on compliance with these standards. Key pollutants include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, ozone, and particulate matter, with regulations aimed at reducing their harmful effects. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 mandated Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) for major federal actions affecting the environment. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) plays a limited role in EIS reviews, providing feedback on environmental acceptability but not typically preparing EIS documents. Principles of land use management reflect challenges like urban sprawl and environmental impacts from various human activities, emphasizing the need for sustainable practices.
Air Pollution Control Act and Key Legislation
1955: The Air Pollution Control Act authorized a research and technical assistance program. This was the first major federal legislation aimed at air pollution control, establishing that motor vehicle emissions were conclusively linked to smog problems in urban areas, particularly notable in cities like Los Angeles.
1965: The Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act was passed, giving automobile manufacturers a two-year notice period to comply with newly established air quality standards, aimed at reducing vehicular emissions.
1967: The Air Quality Act mandated the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) to designate national geographic air quality control regions. States were also required to adopt air quality standards based on HEW’s criteria documents. States had to develop an "implementation plan" that set standards for individual pollution sources.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) created distinct Air Quality Control Regions and developed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), which set the maximum permissible concentrations of designated "criteria" pollutants in ambient air.
The EPA further established New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) that set allowable emission limitations for various new stationary sources of air pollution, ensuring newer systems adhered to stricter pollution control measures.
Clean Air Act (CAA)
Title I of the CAA required the EPA to set three nationwide standards:
National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP): For pollutants that do not currently have ambient air quality standards but are hazardous.
Primary Standards: Developed to protect public health, providing an adequate margin of safety.
Secondary Standards: Set to protect public welfare from adverse effects related to air pollutants.
Amendments and Compliance
1977 Amendments: Distinguished between pollutants subject to NSPS not listed as either "hazardous" or as a "criteria" pollutant, in which case they are referred to as designated pollutants.
Under the CAA, the EPA was required to prepare NAAQS for criteria pollutants that could harm public health and welfare, to be developed based on the sources of both mobile and stationary emissions.
Once NAAQS were established, states must demonstrate how these standards would be met and maintained through State Implementation Plans (SIPs).
Pollutants and Health Impacts
Criteria Pollutants include:
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): 80% from fossil fuel combustion, causing respiratory issues and contributing to acid rain.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Exacerbates respiratory diseases and affects visibility; primarily from vehicles and industrial activity.
Carbon Monoxide (CO): From incomplete fossil fuel combustion, binds with hemoglobin, leading to health risks.
Ozone (O3): A secondary pollutant that can aggravate respiratory conditions, resulting from reactions between sunlight, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds.
Particulate Matter (PM): Fine particles posing serious health risks, especially PM2.5, can be mitigated using technologies like electrostatic precipitators and scrubbers.
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
Established in 1969: This law mandates that an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) must be prepared for major federal actions affecting the quality of the environment.
The EPA, while playing a limited role in the preparation of EISs, generally reviews them to assess environmental acceptability under the National Environmental Policy Act's requirements.
Principles of Land Use Management
Challenges of Urban Sprawl: Urban areas expand into rural areas, leading to degradation of environmental resources.
Smart Growth: A strategy promoting sustainable urban development through ten principles such as mixed land uses, walkable neighborhoods, and preservation of open spaces.
Overall, air pollution control and environmental legislation seek to safeguard public health and the ecosystem by establishing standards and strategies to manage air quality effectively, emphasizing the need for cooperation between federal, state, and local governments.