CH 5.1_What is education and schooling

I. Formal and informal education

• In the past, most children learned from parents, families, and communities

• Learning happened through watching, listening, and practical experience

• There were usually no schools

Primary Socialisation:
→ The first stage of socialisation, where children learn basic norms, values, and behaviours, mainly from the family.

Secondary Socialisation:
→ The later stage of socialisation, where individuals learn behaviours and expectations from institutions like school, peers, media, and workplace

Informal education

Definition: Learning that happens outside formal institutions, through family, friends, and everyday experiences.

• Common in traditional societies and poorer communities

• Still exists today

Formal education:

Definition: Learning that takes place in organised institutions like schools, following a structured curriculum and qualifications.

• Taught by professional teachers

• Follows agreed subjects and curriculum

• Became more common over the last 150 years

Informal education today

• Education outside the classroom

  • e.g. after-school activities

• Hidden curriculum

  • Definition: things students learn at school that are not part of the official lessons

  • Examples:

    • being on time

    • following authority

    • behaving according to school rules

1. Official curriculum

Definition: the subjects and content formally taught in schools

• Structured by government or educational authority, often through a national curriculum

I. Primary education

• Focus on basic literacy and numeracy: reading, writing, mathematics

• Introduction to other subjects

II. Secondary education

• Wider range of subjects, usually taught by specialist teachers

• Upper secondary: learners choose a few subjects, often arts or sciences

III. Tertiary education / University

• Usually study one or two subjects only

National curriculum

• Ensures all learners of a certain age/standard study the same content

• May include national tests to:

  • Measure student progress

  • Compare school performance

  • Guide parent choice of school

• Allows government to decide which skills and knowledge are important for future citizens

Teacher discretion

• Teachers decide what to teach and when, considering class needs

• For exam-assessed subjects, teachers must cover entire syllabus content

  • e.g., Cambridge IGCSE & O Level

2. Hidden curriculum

Definition: the unofficial lessons learned at school about norms, values, attitudes, and beliefs

Structure and organisation

• Schools are physically separate from home

• Classrooms: teacher at front, students in rows

  • Conveys teacher authority and central role

• Teacher-student interactions also transmit hidden lessons

School hierarchy:

• Learners learn their place in hierarchy:

  • Students at bottom, older students usually higher status

  • Teachers above students, with head teacher at top

  • Head teacher may report to board of governors

  • Hierarchy includes senior teachers, junior teachers, other staff

• Teaches obedience, respect for authority, and roles in social hierarchy

Other features of the hidden curriculum

• Competitive sports and testing: teaches that outperforming others is valued over cooperation

• Punctuality: following timetables and being on time → prepares for workplace routines

• Following rules and expectations:

  • Learners must obey authority and conform to school norms

  • Enforced via formal control (punishments) or informal control (peer disapproval)

• Assemblies: reinforce school community and shared values

• Wall displays: communicate expected behaviour, national or community identity

2.5 Perspectives on the hidden curriculum

I. Functionalist perspective

• See society as stable and orderly, where institutions like family and education work together to maintain social cohesion.
  → Example: Schools teach skills and norms to prepare children for adult life.

• Purpose: teaches skills and attitudes essential for society and individual

• Helps fulfil functions of education

• Learners learn:

  • their place in society

  • how to cooperate

  • roles as future adults

II. Marxist perspective

• Focus on class inequality, arguing that institutions benefit the wealthy and exploit the working class, creating conflict.
  → Example: Education reproduces class divisions.

• Purpose: tool of social control by ruling class

• Working-class children learn to be passive and conformist

• Lessons include:

  • Expecting low achievement

  • Being told what to do

  • Having opinions ignored

  • Boredom

• Curriculum divisions maintain class privilege

• Upper-class children learn to expect high-status roles and lead others

III. Feminist perspective

• Focus on gender inequality, arguing that society is patriarchal and institutions often maintain women’s lower status.
  → Example: Women face discrimination in the workplace despite education

• Purpose: conveys gender roles and stereotypes

• Boys and girls may:

  • have different uniforms

  • study different subjects

  • be treated differently by teachers

• Encourages traditional gender stereotypes and limits perceptions of achievement

2. The effectiveness of different types of schools

I. Types of schools

• Schools vary by country, system, and age of learners

• Categories include state, private, single-sex, faith, and selective schools

Primary education

• First stage of formal academic education (ages 5–11 in UK)

• Focus on reading, writing, mathematics, plus introduction to other subjects

• Usually one class teacher for all subjects

• Preceded by pre-primary education / preschool:

  • Also called kindergarten or nursery

  • Develops cognitive, physical, social, and emotional skills

  • Prepares children for school environment

Secondary education

• Ages 11–16+ (varies by country; ‘high school’ in some)

• Learners study different subjects with specialist teachers

• Ends with examinations for progression

• Often compulsory in industrial societies

• Some learners repeat years, leading to mixed-age classes

Tertiary education

• Definition: third stage of education; not compulsory

• Also called post-compulsory education, further education, or higher education

• Takes place in universities or colleges

• Mature students: older learners returning after work or family commitments

• Degrees offered:

  • Undergraduate / first degrees

  • Postgraduate / higher degrees (including doctorates)

• University staff: teach and conduct research

• Access and variation:

  • Proportion of students varies by country

  • Some countries have limited subjects, forcing learners to study abroad

• Impact: students studying abroad may remain in host country, causing ‘brain drain’ from home country

2. State/public and private schools

State schools

• Funded and run by national or local government

• Also called public schools in some countries

• Must follow government regulations (curriculum, teacher qualifications, etc.)

Private schools

• Funded by fees paid by parents/guardians

• Independent of state restrictions:

  • May choose subjects freely

  • Not required to have qualified teachers

• Can be profit-making or charitable

• Some are boarding schools

Limitations of private schools and strengths of state schools

Private schools:

State Schools:

3. Selective and non-selective schools

• Selective schools: choose learners based on academic ability (e.g., entrance exams)

  • Learners often travel further, from wider areas

• Non-selective schools: accept all children in the catchment area

Entrance examinations

• Ensure selective schools admit most able learners

• Learners who fail may feel failure or disappointment

• Usually at age 11 → critics say this is too early

• Advantage to children with private tutors → can reinforce class divisions

Strengths and Limitations

Non-Selective schools

Selective schools:

4. Single-sex and co-educational schools

Background

• Early schools were single-sex → assumed boys and girls needed different subjects for future roles

• Research on exam results is mixed:

  • Girls may gain more confidence in single-sex schools

  • Boys may behave better in co-educational schools

  • School quality and ethos are more important than type

Strengths and Limitations

Single-sex schools:

co-educational schools:

3. Alternative approaches to education

I. Online learning

What it is

Online learning: Education that takes place through the internet instead of a physical classroom, allowing students to learn remotely using digital platforms.

→ Example: Students attending lessons or completing courses from home using a computer.

• Learners study from home using devices such as phones, tablets, or laptops

II. Homeschooling

Homeschooling = children educated at home instead of attending school

• Teaching may be done by:

  • Parents

  • Private tutors

Regulation in different countries

• Illegal: Sweden, Germany, Netherlands

• Regulated (must follow national curriculum): Canada, Denmark

• More freedom: United Kingdom, Australia, India

• In the UK, education is compulsory, but school attendance is not

Reasons for homeschooling:

• Parents believe they can teach better than schools

• Dissatisfaction with schools (e.g., values taught)

• Protect children from peer pressure or bullying

• Illness or disability

• Families living in remote areas or travelling frequently

III. Unschooling

Definition: A form of homeschooling where children learn through their own interests and everyday experiences rather than a fixed curriculum.

• Formal teaching is minimal

Key Characteristics

• Usually a form of homeschooling

• Learning mainly happens at home with parents

• Focus on learning how to learn, rather than memorising subjects or fixed knowledge

• Child-led learning based on interests and curiosity

IV. Vocational learning

Vocation: A particular occupation or career that a person is trained for or feels suited to.

Vocational learning Definition: Education that focuses on practical skills and training for specific jobs or careers.

→ Example: Courses in carpentry, mechanics, or hospitality.

Key Concepts

• Most school learning is academic → theoretical knowledge with no immediate practical application

• Vocational education teaches practical skills needed for employment

Purpose

• Recognises that not all learners succeed in academic education

• Provides training for skilled occupations

V. Progressive schooling

Definition: An approach to education that focuses on the needs and interests of the child, encouraging creativity, critical thinking, and active learning rather than strict discipline and memorisation.

Key Features

• Learning by doing rather than mainly from textbooks

• Critical thinking and problem-solving instead of memorising information

• Group work and cooperation to develop social skills

• Encourages decision-making and responsibility

• Focus on helping others and contributing to the community

Strengths and limitations of alternative approaches to education