Comprehensive Study Guide to Psychological Schools
Foundations and Principles of Functionalism
Functionalism is a psychological school that studies psychic phenomena by their functions rather than their structure. It does not focus on what the mind is made of, but rather on what the mind is for. It posits that consciousness is not a static thing but an act—an ongoing experience in progress. The central idea of this school is adaptation to the environment. The mind is viewed as having practical utility, existing specifically to resolve problems and facilitate life. There is a deep interest in the "why" of mental processes, viewing consciousness as a continuous stream in constant change, often referred to as a flux of experiences.
The formal beginning of the functionalist school is marked by the publication of the book "Principles of Psychology" in the year by William James. William James is considered the father of functionalism and argued that consciousness helps the individual choose the conduct that is most useful for survival and environmental adaptation. He also proposed a theory of emotion where he stated that a physical reaction occurs first, followed by the experience of the emotion. James categorized the "Empirical Self" into four distinct layers: the Material Self (the body and all physical possessions), the Social Self (the set of relations with others and the recognition received from them), the Spiritual or Mental Self (the collection of thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and memories), and the Pure Ego (the core personal identity that remains stable through changing experiences).
John Dewey was another pivotal figure, a defender of pragmatism who argued that ideas are only true to the extent that they are useful in practice. He applied this pragmatist philosophy to education, promoting "learning by doing," problem-solving, and meaningful experience. Dewey was a key figure at the University of Chicago, where he drove research and progressive education. The object of study for functionalism includes the purposes and functions of mental processes related to the acquisition, storage, organization, valuation, and subsequent use of experience to guide conduct.
The methodology of functionalism is flexible and operates across multiple levels of analysis. It utilizes introspection as reflexive observation of one's own mental processes, the experimental method involving the manipulation of variables, and the comparative method to understand functions through the comparison of individuals, groups, species, or cultures. Key characteristics include an opposition to structuralism, a view of psychology as a practical science oriented toward solving life problems, and a high valuation of individual differences and personal experience. It was heavily influenced by James and Charles Darwin, emphasizing evolution, natural selection, and adaptation. The theoretical bases include Empiricism (knowledge comes from sensory experience), Positivism (confidence in empirical evidence and the scientific method), and Liberal Theory (confidence in progress, individual freedom, and social improvement).
Humanism: Potential and the Hierarchy of Needs
Humanism emerged as a reaction against both psychoanalysis and behaviorism, putting the dignity and potential of the human being at the center of study to promote a meaningful and full life. It emphasizes the understanding of the human being in their totality, including thoughts, feelings, values, choices, and aspirations. The key ideas governing this current are freedom, responsibility, human potential, creativity, personal growth, subjective experience, and self-actualization. Humanism contributed new values to psychology such as respect, empathy, and acceptance, while expanding research to include qualitative and comprehensive approaches. It also offered client-centered psychotherapeutic techniques.
Key representatives of Humanism include Abraham Maslow, the principal figure; Carl Rogers, known for therapy centered on the person and unconditional acceptance; Erich Fromm, who focused on the ethics of love and freedom; Fritz Perls, who emphasized present experience; and Viktor Frankl, known for the search for meaning. Abraham Maslow developed a Hierarchy of Needs represented as a pyramid with five levels: 1) Physiological Needs (food, water, rest, health); 2) Security (stability, protection, resources); 3) Belonging (friendship, family, social relations); 4) Love and Esteem (self-esteem, confidence, achievement, recognition); and 5) Self-Actualization (developing personal potential to the maximum).
Maslow also identified "Peak Experiences," which are intense moments of fulfillment, unity, and totality characterized by happiness, peace, and meaning. These can be aesthetic, religious, creative, or intellectual. A self-actualized person is described as realistic, independent, non-conformist, and focused on solving problems while following their own values. This individual integrates creatively into society and constantly seeks to learn. In the modern era, humanism remains vital in wellness and mental health, promoting safe spaces where persons are heard and understood as free beings capable of growth.
The Reflexological School: Physiological Basis of Conduct
The Reflexological School focuses on objective psychology, seeking to study the mind and conduct through verifiable methods. Its core premise is that psychological processes are founded on the physiological functions of the organism, particularly the nervous system. A reflex is defined as an immediate, automatic, and involuntary response of the organism determined by a stimulus. The school's primary representatives are Bechterev and Ivan Pavlov. Bechterev studied the functions of the nervous system through objective and experimental methods, arguing that psychology must rely on physiology to be scientific.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, studied superior nervous activity and developed the theory of classical conditioning. Reflexes are categorized into two types: Unconditioned Reflexes (innate, natural, hereditary, and permanent) and Conditioned Reflexes (acquired, learned, temporal, and formed by repeated association). Pavlov's famous experiment followed a specific sequence: First, Food ( or Estímulo Incondicionado) produces Salivation ( or Respuesta Incondicionada). Second, an neutral stimulus like a Bell () is presented with the Food () to produce Salivation (). Finally, the Bell alone becomes the Conditioned Stimulus ( or Estímulo Condicionado), producing Salivation as the Conditioned Response ( or Respuesta Condicionada).
This school is important because it provides the basis for understanding how organisms associate environmental stimuli with responses, explaining the origin of new behaviors. However, it has faced criticism for being overly reductionist, as human conduct is too complex to be explained solely through reflex mechanisms. It successfully integrates psychology and physiology into a scientific vision of conduct, explaining how the environment associates with responses.
Psychoanalysis: The Unconscious and Libido Development
Psychoanalysis, founded by the neurologist Sigmund Freud, posits that conduct is heavily influenced by the unconscious, which contains repressed desires, memories, and conflicts. Fundamental intuitions include Repression (where unacceptable contents are expelled from consciousness), the sexual nature of repressed impulses, and Libido (the psychic energy of pleasure that drives mental activity). Freud's methodology included various techniques: Hypnosis (to access the unconscious), the Cathartic Method (remembering and discharging repressed emotion), Free Association (speaking without censorship or judgment), and Interpretation (the analyst assigning meaning to dreams and actions). Dreams were considered the "via regia" (royal road) to the unconscious, consisting of manifest content (what is remembered) and latent content (hidden meaning).
Freud proposed two topographies of the psyche. The First Topography (Structure of Consciousness) includes the Conscious (present perception), Preconscious (easily accessible but not currently in consciousness), and Unconscious (repressed content that is difficult to access but influences behavior). The Second Topography (Instances of Personality) includes the Ello or Id (impulse-driven, follows the pleasure principle for immediate satisfaction), the Yo or Ego (the reality-based mediator and controller), and the Superyó or Superego (internalized norms, ideals, and morality that judges and generates guilt or pride).
Psychic principles in this school include Psychic Determinism (nothing occurs by chance; everything has a cause), Resistance (forces opposing the consciousness of the repressed), Regression (returning to primitive functioning during conflict), and Symbolism. Freud defined two primary drives: Eros/Libido (Life drive oriented toward union and pleasure) and Thanatos (Death drive oriented toward aggression and destruction). Libido development occurs in stages: Oral ( year, pleasure in the mouth), Anal ( years, pleasure in sphincter control), Phallic ( years, interest in genitals and Oedipus/Electra complexes), Latency ( years, decreased sexual interest and focus on learning), and Genital (adolescence onward, mature sexual integration).
Gestalt Psychology: Perception of Totality
Gestalt psychology is centered on the principle that "the whole is more than the sum of its parts," focusing on perception as a totality. Key concepts include Isomorphism (correspondence between mental and physical processes), the Psychological Field (experience as a dynamic, changing field), and Figure and Ground (the tendency to highlight one figure against a background). Representatives include Max Wertheimer (Father of Gestalt), Wolfgang Köhler (investigated problem-solving and learning), and Kurt Koffka (systematized the theory and the concept of the psychological field).
Gestalt learning is characterized by "Insight," or sudden understanding and reorganization of the field rather than simple trial and error. The laws of perception include: 1) Pregnancia/Good Form (organizing perception simply); 2) Similarity (similar elements grouped together); 3) Proximity (near elements grouped together); 4) Closure (mentally completing incomplete figures); 5) Continuity (following smooth directions); 6) Common Fate (moving elements grouped together); 7) Figure-Ground; and 8) Good Figure (perceiving symmetric/simple shapes). Fritz Perls integrated these ideas into Gestalt Therapy, emphasizing the "Here and Now," contact with the environment, and the organism's need for the environment to self-regulate. Health is defined as integration and authenticity.
Behaviorism: Study of Observable Conduct
Behaviorism rejects introspection and the "black box" of the mind, focusing exclusively on observable and measurable conduct. John B. Watson, the founder, proposed the Stimulus-Response () scheme and conducted the "Little Albert" experiment where a white rat (Neutral Stimulus) was associated with a loud noise (Unconditioned Stimulus) to produce crying (Unconditioned Response). B. F. Skinner advanced the field with Operant Conditioning, suggesting that conduct depends on its consequences.
Basic concepts include Stimulus (environmental event), Response (observable reaction), and Conduct (measurable actions). In Operant Conditioning, Reinforcement increases the probability of a behavior repeating: Positive Reinforcement adds something pleasant, while Negative Reinforcement removes something unpleasant. Punishment decreases the probability of a behavior repeating, and Extinction occurs when a behavior decreases because reinforcement stops. Reinforcers are classified as Primary (biological needs like food/water) or Secondary (learned value like money or praise). Other key concepts are Generalization (responding to similar stimuli) and Discrimination (responding only to specific stimuli). This objective, experimental method is widely applied in education, therapy, and advertising.
The Cognitive School: Information Processing
Emerging in the s as part of the Cognitive Revolution, this school views the person as an active processor of information rather than a passive recipient. It focuses on processes such as perception, attention, memory, thought, language, learning, and decision-making. The central idea is that between a stimulus and a response, there is mental processing involving the interpretation, organization, and transformation of information. Key figures include Jean Piaget (Theory of Cognitive Development), Frederic C. Bartlett (Memory as construction), Ulric Neisser, George A. Miller (known for the capacity limit of ), and others like Beck, Ellis, and Bandura.
Piaget introduced concepts like cognitive schemas (mental structures), assimilation (incorporating information into existing schemas), and accommodation (modifying schemas). Bartlett argued that memory uses previous schemas to reconstruct the past rather than storing exact copies. The information processing model follows a sequence: 1) Selection of Stimuli (filtering the environment); 2) Codification (transforming info into a code); 3) Storage (keeping info in memory); and 4) Recovery (accessing info when needed). Modern cognitive structures include the Sensory Receptor, Short-Term or Working Memory, and Long-Term Memory. This school has significant contemporary links to Artificial Intelligence, Science of Language, and Treatment of Information designs.