INTRODUCTION (EVS)
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Environmental Studies - Introduction: An Update on Major Environmental Issues, and an Introduction to Environmental Science and Sustainability
Overview of EVS as a field that updates learners on major environmental issues and introduces sustainability concepts.
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Definition of EVS
EVS deals with every aspect that affects a living organism.
It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach that fosters an appreciation of the natural world and human impact on its integrity.
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Objectives of EVS
INSPIRED BY LIFE
MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION (Deemed to be University under Section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956)
Awareness
Knowledge
Attitude
Skill
Participation
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Importance of EVS
EVS enlightens us about the importance of protection and conservation of our environment. Reasons EVS is significant:
Environmental issues are of international importance.
Problems crop up in the wake of development.
Explosive increase in pollution.
Need for an alternative solution.
Need to save humanity from extinction.
Need for wise planning of development.
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Benefits of EVS
Conservation of energy and fast-depleting natural resources.
Increase in economic productivity.
Imparting knowledge about waste management, treatment, and disposal.
Develop social responsibility toward environment protection.
Creating awareness to control population.
Inculcating attitude and values towards understanding interdependence of nature, man and work towards sustainable development.
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Major Environmental Issues (INSPIRED BY LIFE)
Ozone Layer Depletion
Pollution
Extinction
Global Warming
Resource Depletion
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Ozone Layer Depletion
(Header page; introduces topic)
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Ozone in the Stratosphere
Ozone is a gas in the stratosphere that converts incoming UV radiation from the sun into infrared rays via the ozone-oxygen cycle.
The diagram (blue part) shows the “ozone hole” over the Antarctic—an area in the stratosphere where ozone concentration is very low.
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Ozone Layer Depletion – Solved!
A mock news/ads slide showing a claim that the ozone layer issue has been solved, with references to technology, science, culture, gear, business, politics.
NASA reports: "Hole in the ozone layer 'solved'"; NASA article by Michael Rundle (May 7, 2015) and NASA claim that big ozone holes headed for extinction by 2040.
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Progress on Ozone Layer Problem
The problem has been addressed by a worldwide ban on CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances via the Montreal Protocol (1987).
The ozone hole is expected to close by 2040.
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Trends of Ozone-Depleting Gases
Displayed trends for gases such as HCFCs, CFCs, Bromomethane (CH3Br), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), etc., in ppt units over years (1992, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008).
Notable observations:
HCFCs show some rise but overall a downward trend from peak levels.
CFCs show a downward trend following regulations.
Global Total EECI appears to be down ~10% from peak.
Some gases rise slightly due to weaker regulation in East Asian countries, expected to decline as regulation tightens with development.
Conclusion: Ozone hole issue has been declared resolved; the key takeaway is the collective action that solved a complex problem and the lesson that such collaboration can help address other environmental issues.
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Current State of the Ozone Issue
Ozone-depleting gas trends show some rise in a few gases (e.g., HCFCs) but are expected to be phased out by 2030.
Weak regulation in East Asia contributed to slight rises; improvements follow better regulation as countries develop.
Overall, the ozone hole issue has been declared resolved; the point of discussion is the process of planetary cooperation and the lessons for solving other environmental problems.
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Major Environmental Issues (Continued)
Ozone layer Depletion
Pollution
Extinction
Global Warming
Resource Depletion
Tragedy of the Commons
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Tragedy of the Commons (Intro)
Use of the commons is below carrying capacity; all users benefit.
If one or more users increase use beyond carrying capacity, the commons becomes degraded, and all users incur the degradation costs.
Unless environmental costs are accounted for and addressed in land-use practices, the land will eventually be unable to support the activity.
Source: NTU
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Understanding the Tragedy of the Commons
First used to explain exploitation of common grazing lands in Great Britain and Ireland.
On jointly owned resources (commons) individuals acting in self-interest can cause harm to the resource for the benefit of all users in the short run.
Burdens are shifted to others; long-term degradation harms everyone.
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Key Features and Solutions
The tragedy arises when a resource is scarce, rivalrous in consumption, and non-excludable.
Solutions include:
Private property rights
Government regulation
Development of collective action arrangements
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Examples of Tragedy of the Commons
Ground Water Depletion
Overfishing (Pauly & Zeller, 2016) – World’s marine fisheries catches
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Ground Water and Overfishing
Ground water: underground aquifer is a common resource; heavy extraction by individuals reduces supply for others.
Overfishing: fish stocks are renewable only if they can reproduce; over-extraction reduces future stock; global fishing catch shows a declining trend.
The graphic illustrates a global decline in catches, signaling the tragedy of the commons.
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Possible Solutions?
Government Intervention?
Privatization?
Local Management?
Is there a technological solution?
The slide concludes: There is no definite solution.
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Nobel Prizes and Laureates (Economic Sciences 2009)
Elinor Ostrom, Oliver E. Williamson
Prize motivation: for work on economic governance, especially the commons.
Ostrom’s contribution: Demonstrated that local governance of common-pool resources can work without central regulation or privatization.
Ostrom became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Economics.
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Elinor Ostrom – Nobel Prize in Economics
Ostrom showed that local commons can be successfully managed by local communities without government regulation or privatization.
Her work challenged the prevailing belief that only privatization or centralized regulation could solve commons problems.
Video resources linked for further exploration.
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Pollution: PM2.5
The term fine particles, or particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5), refers to tiny particles or droplets in the air that are 2.5 microns or less in width.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are used to regulate these pollutants.
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Pollution in India and the US Example
Pollution is a serious problem in India; PM2.5 concentration maps illustrate the scale of the issue.
The US WHO guideline: up to 10 µg/m3 is considered safe; maps show ranges with green at or below 10 µg/m3 and higher values indicating greater risk. In the US map, the highest category shown reaches 20 µg/m3.
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Cutting Through India’s Smog (New York Times Editorial, 2015)
The article highlights grave air pollution in India, including high death rates from chronic respiratory diseases (about 1.5 million Indians annually).
In 2014, 13 of the 20 most polluted cities in the world were in India.
U.S. maps and WHO guidelines are used as benchmarks for safety comparisons.
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Continued Editorial Context
Reiterates that India has one of the highest death rates related to chronic respiratory issues and hosts 13 of the world’s 20 most polluted cities.
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Extinction
What is the sixth mass extinction? A WWF resource link is provided for more details.
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Sixth Mass Extinction: Human-Driven Losses
Scientists argue that the sixth mass extinction is underway, driven by human activity: unsustainable land, water, and energy use, and climate change.
Current land conversion for food production accounts for 40%; agriculture accounts for 90% of global deforestation; it uses about 70% of freshwater.
Habitat loss, altered ecosystems, and climate change stress species and reduce biodiversity; greenhouse gas emissions from food systems contribute to climate change.
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OEC-I (HowStuffWorks) and Charles David Keeling
Reference to the work of Charles David Keeling, a geochemist who built the first precise instrument to measure atmospheric CO2, with data from Mauna Loa, Hawaii.
Keeling’s measurements established the foundation for long-term CO2 monitoring.
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Keeling’s Methodology
Keeling chose Mauna Loa to minimize local contamination from anthropogenic sources.
He sent instruments to ice floes and high/low altitude aircraft to gather a representative atmospheric CO2 concentration.
Three breakthroughs:
1) CO2 concentration is not constant; it varies seasonally with plant activity (trees in the northern hemisphere).
2) A trend line reveals a steady uptick consistent with fossil fuel emissions.
3) Not all emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed by forests and oceans.
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The Mauna Loa Observatory Data (Part 1)
ppm stands for parts per million.
The graph shows CO2 concentration from 1957 onward with seasonal variation and a rising trend.
Example data point: 1957-1960 readings with annual mean CO2 concentrations increasing over time.
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Keeling Curve – Key Insights
The curve demonstrates a clear upward trend in atmospheric CO2 since 1957.
Keeling’s continuous measurements established Mauna Loa as the world’s longest-running CO2 measurement station.
The curve has become iconic in climate science as evidence of human impact on atmospheric composition.
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The Keeling Curve – Extended View
A broader view shows CO2 concentrations continuing to rise from the 1958 baseline toward current values.
The format includes monthly mean CO2 concentration data and a seasonal signal.
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Significance of the Keeling Curve
The curve demonstrates a roughly 100 ppm increase in atmospheric CO2 since 1957.
Mauna Loa remains the reference site for long-term atmospheric CO2 tracking.
The curve is celebrated as one of the most influential scientific works of our time.
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Latest CO2 Reading (as of 2019)
Latest reading: 413.51 ppm (June 26, 2019).
The Mauna Loa record shows ongoing increase, with values around 400+ ppm in the early 2000s and surpassing 410 ppm by 2019.
The graph displays concentrations from 1960 to 2020, illustrating the upward trajectory.
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Why the CO2 Reading Matters
A single value (e.g., 413.51 ppm) has context only when compared to historical records, ice core data, and climate models.
Ice core data provide a longer-term perspective on atmospheric CO2 and temperature relationships beyond the instrumental record.
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Ice Core – Overview
Ice cores are cylindrical blocks drilled from polar ice; they contain air pockets trapped in layers that preserve ancient atmospheric compositions.
These layers form annually, creating a temporal record of CO2 and temperature.
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Ice Core Conceptualization
Each year’s snowfall compresses into ice, trapping air bubbles that reveal past atmospheric CO2 and temperature.
Ice cores enable reconstruction of atmospheric composition and palaeoclimate conditions over long timescales (e.g., hundreds of thousands of years).
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Ice Core Drilling (Image Placeholder)
Visuals illustrate drilling and sampling of ice cores for scientific analysis.
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CO2 and Temperature – Antarctic Ice Cores (Past 800,000 years)
Graph: CO2 concentration (ppmv) vs. Antarctic temperature (°C).
The data show alternating glacial (low CO2, cold) and interglacial (high CO2, warmer) periods.
The relationship between CO2 and temperature is strong, though not perfectly linear.
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Current CO2 Levels vs Geological History
Scientists have reconstructed CO2 and temperature histories for the last ~800,000 years using ice cores.
The current CO2 levels exceed anything seen in the past 800,000 years, largely due to human activities, which is cause for concern.
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Global Temperature Change (1961-1990 Baseline)
Difference (°C) from 1961-1990 shown as a rising anomaly.
Various estimates and fits:
Estimated actual global mean temperature increase: around 0.6°C (example figure shown).
IPCC (2007) decadal rate estimates:
0.177 ± 0.052 °C per decade (annual mean, initial period)
0.128 ± 0.026 °C per decade (50-year smoothed)
0.074 ± 0.018 °C per decade (100-year)
0.045 ± 0.012 °C per decade (150-year)
These figures illustrate warming trends and uncertainties in decadal variability.
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Rising Rate of CO2 and Inadequate Mitigation
The rate of change of CO2 has accelerated despite mitigation efforts.
This suggests that current measures are insufficient to curb emissions and the atmospheric CO2 concentration is rising more rapidly than earlier projections.
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Evidence from Ice Core versus Direct Measurements
A synthesis of atmospheric samples from ice cores and modern direct measurements shows CO2 has increased since the Industrial Revolution.
Cited sources include Luthi et al. (2008), Etheridge et al. (2010), Petit et al. (Vostok ice core data), and NOAA Mauna Loa records.
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Observed Evidences of Climate Change
1) Shrinking ice sheets: Greenland and Antarctic ice loss are occurring.
NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) shows Greenland lost ~{286} billion tons of ice per year (1993–2016) and Antarctica ~{127} billion tons per year (1993–2016).
2) Declining Arctic sea ice: Extent and thickness have declined rapidly over decades.
3) Extreme events: Increase in record high temperatures; decrease in record low temperatures since 1950; increased intense rainfall events in the U.S.
4) Ocean acidification: Since the Industrial Revolution, surface ocean acidity has increased by about 30%; absorption rate into upper ocean is ~2 billion tons of CO2 per year.
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Global Warming – Impacts and Indicators
Observed warming includes higher frequency and intensity of heat events and changes in precipitation patterns.
Oceanic uptake of CO2 leads to acidification, affecting marine ecosystems.
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Global Warming Predictions (2070-2100 vs 1960-1990)
Based on HadCM3 climate model scenarios, temperature increases are projected to vary:
Ranges from approximately 0°C to 6°C depending on scenario.
The spread reflects uncertainty across model ensembles and emission pathways.
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Complexity of Climate Projections
Earth is a non-linear dynamical system; predicting the exact climate trajectory is inherently difficult.
This non-linearity leads to a range of possible futures rather than a single forecast.
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Scenario-Based Temperature Change (2100)
A comparison of different scenarios (IS92, A1FI, A1B, A1T, A2, B1, B2, etc.) and model ensembles.
The graph shows a wide envelope of possible temperature changes by 2100, illustrating the uncertainty across models and scenarios.
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Implications of Temperature Scenarios
The 2100 temperature change ranges roughly from ~1.5°C to ~6°C depending on scenario.
Higher-end scenarios imply more severe impacts (e.g., coastal evacuations, extreme weather, ecosystem stress).
Policy implications: need for aggressive emissions reductions to stay toward the lower end of the envelope.
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Climate Policy – COP21 (Paris Agreement) Framework
Goal: Keep global temperature rise well below 2°C with aspirations to limit to 1.5°C.
All countries to report regularly on emissions and efforts to reduce them every 5 years.
New transparency and accounting system; developed countries to mobilize $100B/year in climate finance through 2025.
Public opinion indicators:
78% want their countries to take measures to reduce GHG emissions even if others don’t.
70% dissatisfied with past UN climate negotiations.
56–90% support renewable carbon taxes (depending on demographic/source).
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Paris Climate Agreement (COP21) – Key Point
COP21 (2015) aims to keep warming well below 2°C, with aspiration to 1.5°C; ambitious but challenging given current trajectories.
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Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Temperature Forecasts
Estimated global GHG emissions (gigatons CO2e) and projected temperature effects under different policy trajectories:
Current policy scenario: +3.3 to +3.8°C by 2100.
New pledges (NDCs): +2.5 to +2.7°C by 2100.
Both remain above the 2°C target; only stronger action could bring us toward <2°C.
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Current Policy Trajectory vs New Proposals
Even with current policies, a roughly +4°C rise is projected.
New proposed environmental policies might reduce this to about 2.5–2.7°C, but not to the Paris 2°C or 1.5°C targets.
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Cities at Risk from Climate Change
Map highlight of vulnerable cities: Miami, Baghdad, New Delhi, Lagos, Jakarta, etc.
Risk levels: Low, Medium-High, Extreme.
Source: Verisk Maplecroft.
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Sustainable Development (SD)
Definition: SD is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987).
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What is Sustainable about Development?
Questions to consider:
What is development?
How do you measure sustainability in the current development paradigm?
Is your definition aligned with environmental sustainability?
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What is Development? GDP as a Metric (IMF Definition)
GDP measures the monetary value of final goods and services produced in a country in a given period.
GDP is a measure of the throughput of natural resources (resource consumption) in the economy.
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Three Methods of GDP Calculation (Overview)
Income Method:
Wages & Salaries
Profits of Private Sector Businesses
Rent Income from Ownership of Land
Expenditure Method:
Consumption Expenditure (C)
Investment Expenditure (I)
Government Expenditure (G)
Net Exports (NX) = Exports − Imports
Output Method:
Value Added from each economic sector: Agriculture, Manufacturing, Service
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GDP Calculation Formulas (Key Idea)
Expenditure approach: $$ GDP = C + I + G + NX \