Philosophy Week 2 Notes – Truth, Methods of Philosophizing, Logic & Fallacies
Guiding Questions for the Week
Why is philosophy essential in life?
What foundations allow us to answer philosophical questions?
What is “truth”? What does it mean to know? How do we reach & justify truth?
What Is Philosophizing?
Simple definition: to think or express oneself in a philosophical manner. This involves systematic, critical, reflective, and rational inquiry about reality, self, values, and knowledge.
Reasons “Why Should I Do Philosophy?”
Evaluate arguments & reasons.
Express thoughts/opinions validly.
Construct sound arguments (true premises + valid structure).
Understand life and its essence.
Seek, identify, and defend truth.
Manifest one’s nature as HUMAN = Rational Being.
Ice-Breaker: “Pampagising” Activity 🔍
Task: Share 1 truth + 2 opinions about yourself (drawn from what others say).
Reflective Questions:
Why are you certain the chosen characteristic is true?
Why are the other statements merely opinion or untrue?
How do you differentiate the personal truth from others’ opinions?
Weekly Objectives
Examine given statements and tag them as opinion or truth.
Trace the correlation among (a) methods of philosophizing, (b) acquisition of truth, and (c) wisdom.
The Nature of Truth
Core inquiries repeated each session:
• What is truth?
• What counts as knowing?
• Paths to arriving at truth?
• How to justify truth‐claims?
Two Kinds of Truth (slide keyword table)
Necessary Truth
• True by reason/essence (cannot be otherwise).
• Example: 2+2=4; “All bachelors are unmarried.”Contingent Truth
• True by fact/experience but could have been false.
• Example: “It is raining at 3 p.m. in Manila today.”
Methods of Philosophizing
1. Phenomenology – “Philosophy of Experience: Structure”
Focus: Consciousness & careful description of phenomena (anything consciously experienced).
Requires bracketing (setting aside) biases, attending to how things appear.
Temporal map (diagram): past/future zones → memory, anticipation, historical/theoretical experience, mystery of distant future, eternity, death.
Key discipline: awareness of multiple perspectives beyond one’s own.
2. Existentialism – “Life is a choice!”
Emphasizes individual freedom, responsibility, and authenticity.
Truth/wisdom discovered through personal lived experience; each person defines purpose.
Famous dictum echoed: “I think, therefore I am.” Yet existentialists push further: “I choose, therefore I become.”
Accountability: no one else can take responsibility for your choices or their consequences.
Phenomenology vs. Existentialism
Phenomenology: descriptive, suspends judgment, maps conscious structures.
Existentialism: prescriptive, confronts concrete choices, angst, meaning.
Both arose in Continental philosophy; many thinkers (e.g.
• Husserl → phenomenology foundation
• Heidegger & Sartre blend both approaches).
3. Logic & Critical Thinking (Reasoning)
Logic: science of valid inference and argument structure.
Critical Thinking: evaluation of facts vs. opinions, uncovering cultural biases, willingness to revise.
Combined aim: freedom from half-truths & deception.
Two General Types of Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Moves from specific observations → general conclusion.
Used in prediction, forecasting, behavioral assumptions.
Reliability measured by probability, not certainty.
Deductive Reasoning
Applies a general rule + specific case → necessary conclusion.
If premises are true and form is valid, conclusion is certain.
Inductive Examples
Ex 1
• P1: Mary & Jim are left-handed; they use left-handed scissors.
• P2: Bill is left-handed.
• C: Bill probably uses left-handed scissors.Ex 2
• P1–P3: First three gummy worms drawn are blue.
• C: All worms in the pack are blue.
Deductive Examples
Ex 1
• P1: All philosophers are wise.
• P2: Socrates is a philosopher.
• C: Socrates is wise.Ex 2
• P1: All boys born in March are womanizers (questionable premise).
• P2: Paolo was born in March.
• C: Paolo is a womanizer (valid form, dubious truth).
Identifying Fallacies ("Valid ≠ True")
Fallacy: a defect in an argument beyond merely having false premises; it undermines logical strength.
Detection requires inspecting content and context.
Fallacies, Definitions & Illustrations
Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam)
• Persuades by exploiting opponent’s sympathy/guilt instead of evidence.Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam)
• Claims lack of proof against ⇒ statement must be true (or vice-versa).Equivocation
• Shifts the meaning of a word mid-argument.
• Example: “Mark steals the basketball → praised; Mark steals money → should also be praised.” (different senses of steals).Composition
• Attributes property of parts → whole.
• Ex: Eyes, lips, teeth, hair each beautiful → therefore the whole person is beautiful.Division
• Reverse of composition: property of whole → parts.
• Sample Filipino line: “Maganda ang buong pagkatao mo kung maganda ang ugali mo.”Against the Person (Ad Hominem)
• Attacks opponent’s character/beliefs rather than the argument.
• Example slide: labeling all “DDS” as bobo (stupid) while ignoring credentials (e.g., H. Roque’s academic record).Appeal to Force (Ad Baculum)
• Uses threat or coercion to secure agreement.Appeal to People (Ad Populum)
• Appeals to popularity, vanity, social esteem: “Everyone’s doing it, so it’s right.”Hasty Generalization
• Draws broad conclusion from insufficient or non-representative sample.False Cause (Post Hoc / Correlation ≠ Causation)
• Assumes temporal succession implies causation.Begging the Question (Petitio Principii)
• Conclusion is presupposed in the premise; circular reasoning.
Classroom & Assessment Activities
Fallacy Skits (Group Work)
Form 4 groups; craft a skit script employing at least 4 different fallacies.
Highlight & label fallacies in submitted script.
Present conversation; one member explains without naming fallacies.
Rubrics (Total 30 pts)
Cooperation & Teamwork: 15
Content Quality: 10
Punctuality: 5
Quiz
30-item assessment covering truth, methods of philosophizing, reasoning, and fallacies.
Async “#DoingPhilosophy on TikTok”
Produce a TikTok ≤ 3 minutes.
Requirements:
• Explain importance of understanding methods of philosophizing.
• Present common student fallacies & avoidance tips.
• Show how philosophy helps people discover their own truth.Rubrics (Total 30 pts):
• Content & Relevance 10
• Creativity 10
• Organization 10
Integrative Connections & Significance
Foundational principles: Humans as rational beings → obligated to seek truth via valid reasoning.
Phenomenology & Existentialism link subjective experience with authentic choice, providing depth beyond purely logical analysis.
Logic & Critical Thinking supply tools to guard against manipulation (fallacies) and half-truths.
Ethical/Practical angle: Accurate discernment of truth underlies responsible decision-making in personal, social, and civic life (recall “Life has no CTRL + Z”).
Real-world relevance: Examples span basketball, candy, political labels, beauty standards—showing philosophy’s application to everyday reasoning.
Key Formulas / Numerical References
Necessary vs. contingent truth examples include mathematical identities like 2+2=4.
Assessment weights and point allocations consistently framed: skit 30 pts; quiz 30 items; TikTok rubric 30 pts.
Study Tips
Practice distinguishing truth statements from opinions using the three-question test (evidence? necessity? contingency?).
Re-create inductive & deductive arguments from daily observations—then test them for validity and soundness.
Spot at least one fallacy per news article or social-media post you encounter.
When facing choices, pair phenomenological reflection (how do I experience this?) with existential responsibility (am I owning the consequences?).
Use these bullet-point notes as a full substitute for the original slide deck and transcript while reviewing for any quiz, skit, or reflective activity in your Introduction to Philosophy course. Happy philosophizing!