reading: african-americans post civil war
economic progress:
in january 1865, general sherman's attempt to redistribute 400,000 acres of abandoned rice plantations to african americans was stopped by president johnson.
in january 1866, african americans under tunis campbell on st catherine's island, georgia, had to give up their land to its former owner.
economic progress for african americans was slow, with cotton remaining the biggest usa export, requiring blacks to work in the fields.
most former slaves became wage-earning laborers and tenants, trapped in debt by sharecropping and crop-lien systems.
from 1872 to 1877, the southern economy remained impoverished, and african americans remained deprived.
some freedmen obtained land in the west through the homestead act of 1862 and the southern homestead act of 1866, though the land was often poor.
a successful community was established at davis bend, mississippi, by benjamin montgomery, a former slave who bought land from his former master.
the 'exoduster' movement in the late 1870s helped former slaves migrate in search of new land.
former slave benjamin singleton formed the edgefield real estate and homestead association in tennessee in 1874 to help blacks migrate to better locations.
a kind of equality was achieved in the military arena by the end of the war, with 186,000 black soldiers and sailors serving in union forces.
in 1877, henry flipper became the first black man to graduate from west point, and black regiments ('buffalo soldiers') were set up.
booker t. washington took charge of the tuskegee negro normal institute in 1881, focusing on practical skills for black boys in farming.
washington's approach was criticised by black radicals like w.e.b. du bois for being too accommodating and not focusing on political rights.
despite criticisms, washington's approach attracted white benefactors and led to investment in black education and businesses.
by 1900, african americans had entered professions and owned businesses, particularly in areas serving black customers.
substantial improvements in african american living standards occurred in the 50 years after the war, with increased land ownership, reduced mortality rates, and a rise in black per capita agricultural income.
social n legal process:
after the war, southern states introduced 'black codes' to keep former slaves subordinate.
black codes restricted legal status, voting, and office-holding, and introduced apprenticeship and vagrancy rules.
federal officials suspended black codes within a year.
violence against blacks was endemic postwar, with over 2,000 african americans killed in 1865 in the shreveport area.
Juneteenth honors the date, June 19, 1865, when the last Confederate community of enslaved Americans in Galveston, Texas, received word that they had been freed from bondage.
in may 1866, memphis riots led to 46 black deaths, five rapes, and the burning of 90 houses, 12 schools, and four churches.
the ku klux klan was established in tennessee in 1866, aiming to intimidate blacks and white collaborators.
the klan limited blacks' educational opportunities, economic progress, voting rights, and bearing of arms.
jack dupree, a politically active black man, was killed by the klan in mississippi.
the freedmen's bureau, led by oliver o. howard, spent $5 million on schools between 1865 and 1871.
by autumn 1866, only 38,000 northern troops remained in the south, leaving freedmen's bureau officials to negotiate with local officials.
despite opposition, the freedmen's bureau set up 100 hospitals, 4,000 schools, and the first black higher education institutions.
by 1876, 70,000 blacks attended school in the south, compared to none in 1860.
by 1876, a third of south carolina's black school teaching staff was black.
by 1900, 75 black colleges existed in the south, and 150 black newspapers were published.
independent black churches provided schools, law courts, and social activities.
in 1867, the first racially-mixed jury in the south was impanelled.
the panic of 1873 harmed the southern economy, leading to a rise in bourbon democrat power.
white supremacist violence and political pressure suppressed black political activity and voting.
charles caldwell, a black mississippi state senator, was murdered in 1875.
president grant became reluctant to use force to enforce reconstruction.
the civil rights act of 1875 was never enforced.
from 1880 to 1940, an estimated 4,000 blacks were lynched, with significant violence continuing.
ida wells exposed memphis lynchings in 1892 but was forced out.
in 1899, over 2,000 people watched the lynching of sam hose in georgia.
by 1908, lynching postcards were banned by the us postmaster-general.
supreme court decisions undermined the 14th amendment and civil rights acts of 1866 and 1875.
the 1873 slaughterhouse cases limited the protection of state citizenship rights.
in 1875, us v. cruikshank ruled the 14th amendment protected rights only when infringed by state actions.
'jim crow' laws segregating blacks began in the 1870s and expanded in the 1890s.
in 1896, plessy v. ferguson upheld 'separate but equal' accommodations.
segregation extended to public facilities, schools, and more.
african-american entertainers, musicians, and writers gained acceptance, but sports integration lagged.
jackie robinson became the first black major league baseball player in 1947.
political progress:
during presidential reconstruction, prospects for black voting rights were bleak.
by december 1865, johnson had readmitted all southern states except texas without enfranchising blacks.
these states elected over 60 ex-confederates, including alexander stephens.
congress, with northern backing, refused to seat these representatives in december 1865.
johnson's opposition to black civil rights pushed moderates towards radical republicans.
johnson's impeachment failed by one vote, but congressional reconstruction prevailed.
the south, except tennessee, was divided into five military districts controlled by union generals.
many southern whites were barred from voting and holding office, while union league tampered with black ballots.
the 14th amendment was ratified in 1868, granting blacks citizenship and penalising states that denied black voting.
states found ways to circumvent the 14th amendment, keeping blacks underrepresented.
despite white dominance, some blacks gained political office, such as robert elliott and ebenezer bassett.
abram colby, a black legislator, was nearly killed by the kkk but continued to serve.
grant's force acts in 1870-71 suppressed the kkk.
the 15th amendment, ratified in 1870, confirmed black men's right to vote.
by 1877, blacks held two senate seats and 15 house seats.
over 600 blacks served in state legislatures during reconstruction.
the 1876 presidential election fraudulently led to hayes' victory, ending reconstruction with the removal of federal troops.
post-reconstruction, blacks faced disenfranchisement through violence and intimidation.
early 20th-century historians criticised reconstruction, but later historians highlighted black progress.
recent historians emphasise the major role blacks played in reconstruction and their economic progress despite segregation and disenfranchisement.