Reactions to the Industrial Revolution

Factory work was monotonous and involved long hours (e.g., 13 hours a day) with minimal pay.
The working class began to call for reforms in response to their harsh conditions.

Political Reform:
- Western nations were expanding voting rights, leading to the rise of mass-based political parties representing workers' interests.
- Established parties (e.g., Conservatives and Liberals in Britain and France) had to incorporate social reforms into their platforms to appeal to the working class.
Social Reform:
- Working-class individuals organized social societies to provide insurance for sickness and social events.
Educational Reform:
- Between 1870 and 1914, most European governments enacted compulsory education laws for children aged 6-12.
- Compulsory education prepared children for increasingly technical and specialized jobs during the Second Industrial Revolution.
Urban Reform:
- Industrial cities suffered from overcrowding and poor sanitation, leading to unsanitary conditions.
- Governments invested in sanitation infrastructure like sewers to address these issues.

Labor unions are collectives of workers who join together to protect their interests.
Before reforms, labor unions were often illegal, leaving workers with little power to negotiate for better conditions.
Collective bargaining allowed unions to push for higher wages, limited working hours, and improved working conditions.
By the end of the 19th century, British labor unions had nearly 2 million workers, while German and American unions had about 1 million each.
Some unions evolved into political parties advocating for reforms on behalf of the working classes.
- Example: The German Social Democratic Party, formed from the General German Workers Association, advocated for Marxist reform to transition from private to social ownership of the means of production.

Karl Marx believed that capitalism was inherently unstable due to its creation of sharp class divisions.
Marx argued that the exploitation of the working class (proletariat) by the upper class (bourgeoisie) would inevitably lead to a violent revolution and a classless society.
The Communist Manifesto (1848), co-authored by Marx and Friedrich Engels, presented their ideas of