E

421Leadership and Management Notes

Leadership

  • Definition: Leadership is the ability to facilitate and influence others to make recognizable strides towards shared and unshared objectives.

  • Tools of leadership:

    • Vision casting

    • Alignment

    • Meaningful communication

    • Self-reflection

    • Sincerity

    • Assessment

  • Role: Leader as motivator; In leadership, people are led.

Management

  • Definition: Management is the ability to use organizational resources to accomplish pre-determined objectives, through:

    • Planning

    • Organizing

    • Controlling

    • Coordinating

  • Characteristics:

    • Objectives are enacted with or without followers

    • Subordinates do as directed, not necessarily because they think the direction is correct

    • Functions within an organization

    • Follows pre-established procedures/policies – especially if a problem arises

Management by Objective (MBO)

  • MBO: Preestablished objectives should be used in the appraisal of every aspect of an organization; performance relies on defining and assessing those objectives.

  • To work, MBO objectives/goals must be SMART:

    • Specific

    • Measurable

    • Achievement oriented

    • Realistic

    • Time oriented

  • MBO requires appraisal, which is routine clarification and assessment of progress toward previously agreed-upon goals and objectives.

SMART Goals

  • Specific: should be in depth and with exhaustive detail.

  • Measurable: must be objectively/quantitatively measurable.

  • Achievement Oriented: arranged to result in progression.

  • Realistic: should be achievable.

  • Time Oriented: must denote a specific time period.

The Big Five Traits (Five Major Personality Traits)

  • Extroversion: People are sociable and positive; managers high in extroversion are sociable and friendly.

  • Negative Affectivity: People experience negative moods; managers may be critical and distressed.

  • Agreeableness: People like to get along with others; managers are likable and care about others.

  • Conscientiousness: People tend to be careful, persevering, and detail-oriented.

  • Openness to Experience: People are original with broad interests.

  • Practical note: The Big Five traits vary among successful managers; there is not a single profile of a perfect manager.

Locus of Control

  • Internal Locus of Control: People believe they are responsible for their fate; their actions are important to achieving goals.

  • External Locus of Control: People believe outside forces determine fate; actions have less impact on outcomes.

  • Implication for management: Managers benefit from an Internal Locus of Control, as it correlates with persistence and goal-oriented behavior.

Internal vs External Locus of Control and Clients (Lifestyle Adaptations)

  • Locus of control: a psychological concept describing the extent to which individuals believe they have control over the events in their lives

  • Internal locus: Likely to respond more proactively to healthy lifestyle adaptations because they feel their actions matter.

  • External locus: May rely on external cues or authorities, potentially slower or less persistent in behavior change.

  • Which individual is more successful? Generally, individuals with an Internal Locus of Control tend to be more successful in initiating and sustaining lifestyle changes due to perceived personal agency.

Stress and Performance

  • Stress occurs when people face important opportunities or threats and feel uncertain. physiological issues, hormonal production

  • Physiological issues: sleep problems, headaches, and other health problems; long-term stress can lead to heart disease, high blood pressure, immune suppression, hormone issues, and metabolic disease in dealing with stress

  • Psychological issues: mood changes, anger, nervousness; can reduce work output, increase frustration

  • Behavioral issues: Stress can either enhance or impair job performance depending on context and coping.

  • Conceptual note: The Stress-Performance relationship is often described as a curve where positive stress can enhance performance up to a point, after which performance declines with higher stress (illustrative, not explicitly labeled here).

  • Stress: self-efficacy (high to low continuum)- extent or strength of one’s belief in one’s own ability to complete tasks and reach goals

    • can motivate or impede based on the self-efficacy continuum

  • EU: level of stress is just right

Models of Leadership

  • Classical: Power is innate; vision is not a component; followers comply out of fear or respect.

  • Transactional: Reward and punishment; productivity/quotas; employee role minimized; focus on manager. Successful outcomes that only benefit the leader

  • Visionary: Uses emotion and vision to create buy-in; followers are active participants in the vision, family-based, vision casting, and friendly relationships

  • Organic: Leader and followers are a team; the leader acts as a spokesperson; team-driven.

Applying Leadership Models in Organizations

  • Using principles from different leadership models simultaneously can be contradictory in practice. Disagree -situational

  • Depends on the person- self-efficacy: positive, simple task- low: tasks may overwhelm them, micromanagement

Ralph Stogdill (1950s) – Critical Behaviors

  • Initiating structure: organizing and defining roles; establishing a hierarchy.

  • Consideration: promoting an environment of emotional support and trust.

Leadership Behaviors and Theories

  • Trait Theory: Some people are born to lead. Does demonstrating confidence in your own abilities radiate to others? Failure only occurs when you stop

  • Situational Leadership Theory: The leader adapts based on the subordinate's development level. Develop what you see from people-don’t need micromanaging

    • Competence and commitment.

    • If one aspect of competence is low, then the other leader must foster the missing trait

  • Path-Goal Leadership Theory: Motivational skills to foster goal attainment. Appropriate path, appropriate outcome

    • “If you follow this diet and exercise plan, your goal is attainable.”

  • Transformational Leadership: Inspires and motivates through mutual respect; components include, for the best of the organization:

    • Challenging the process: room for improvement

    • Inspiring a shared vision: buy-in, the harder they work

    • Enabling others to act: be creative, independent

    • Modeling the way: lead by example

    • Encouraging the heart: foster innovation- could this leader fire someone?

  • Transactional Leadership: Leadership as an exchange; focus on performance and conformity.

    • Motivation for the leader, not the follower: A key aspect of effective leadership is maintaining a strong personal drive and ambition, which can inspire followers to align their own motivation with organizational goals. “I did all the work, but they got all the credit”

Lewin’s Leadership Styles

  • Autocratic: One decision maker.

  • Democratic: Peers and subordinates are involved in decision-making.

  • Laissez-faire: Each person makes their own decisions. High efficacy

Other Leadership Theories and Concepts

  • Servant Leadership: The organization is subordinate to the relationship with followers; leadership serves followers. Grow the workers-improve self-efficacy. Non-profit organization

  • Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX): In-groups and out-groups form based on relationship quality with the leader. Popularity contest

  • Integrated Psychological Leadership Theory: Leaders should care about followers’ needs equally to their own; leadership is service. Teaching, Robertson, Axtell

  • Emotional Intelligence (EI): Ability to handle emotions and relationships; includes self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. EI skills include:

    • Recognizing and perceiving emotions in others and yourself

    • Using emotions to aid thinking. day to day. hour to hour

    • Analyzing and understanding emotions. controlling emotions

    • Managing personal emotions toward goals, self-knowledge, and social awareness

  • Contextual Intelligence: Ability to adapt and respond appropriately to different situations based on the environment and stakeholders’ values.

Emotional Intelligence – Details

  • Internal factors: Self-awareness and self-management.

  • External factors: Social awareness and relationship management.

  • Four skills recap: recognize others’ emotions, use emotions to assist thinking, analyze and understand emotions, and manage personal emotions toward goals.

  • contextual intelligence: the ability to adapt, use emotional intelligence, a predictor of success - using the four skills

Theory X and Theory Y

  • Theory X: Assumes most people are inherently lazy and avoid work; requires higher micromanagement.

  • Theory Y: Assumes employees are self-motivated, desire responsibility, and can self-direct; supports creativity and delegation.

Management Key Concepts

  • Organizations: People coordinating actions to achieve specific goals.

  • Goal: A desired future condition the organization seeks to achieve.

  • Management: The process of using organizational resources to achieve goals by planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

    • Planning: setting goals

    • Organizing: arranging tasks/people/resources to accomplish work that was planned

    • Leading: inspiring people to achieve high performance

    • Controlling: measuring performance

Managerial Functions (Fayol)

  • Henri Fayol identified four managerial functions (late 1800s): Planning, Organizing, Leading, and Controlling. How are we going to achieve? We organize, lead, and control

Management Levels

  • Three typical levels of management: where do I play?

    • First-line Managers: Day-to-day operations; supervise the people performing activities.

    • Middle Managers: Supervise first-line managers and allocate departmental resources to achieve organizational goals. Where should the money be spent?

    • Top Managers: Oversee all departments; cross-department responsibility; establish organizational goals and monitor middle managers.

Additional Key Concepts – Resources

  • Resources are organizational assets and include:

    • People

    • Machinery

    • Raw materials

    • Information, skills

    • Financial capital

  • Managers supervise the use of these resources to meet organizational goals. How can we use them to get to our end goal?

Managerial Skills

  • Three essential skill sets:

    • Conceptual skills: Ability to analyze, diagnose, and understand cause-and-effect relationships. Preset plan from the upper manager

    • Human skills: Ability to understand, lead, and influence people’s behavior.

    • Technical skills: Job-specific knowledge required to perform tasks (e.g., marketing, accounting, manufacturing).

  • All three skills are enhanced through formal training, reading, and practice. Feed off each other!

Organizational Behavior (OB)

  • OB Definition: The capacity to understand, explain, and improve attitudes and behaviors of individuals and groups within organizations. Understand and explain different attitudes and behaviors

  • Individual outcomes: Competency of skills and commitment to employer/clients.

  • Individual mechanisms: Motivation, ethics, and job satisfaction relevant to performance? Who is making the decisions? Do they agree? Are they learning? Perfect amount of stress

  • Individual characteristics: Personal skills and personality. Expectations and results. Do we have the personality?

  • Group mechanisms: Leadership styles and dynamics based on group interactions/dynamics. Not all leadership traits will be used for all people or groups- internally motivated, external motivation

  • Organizational mechanisms: Big-picture concepts and culture; usually drawn from a mission statement. Agree with the culture? Leave or change?

Organizational Behavior – Resources and HR

  • Human Resources vs Non-Human Resources:

    • Leadership Skills and Abilities

    • Leadership Behaviors

      Non-Human

    • Budgets

    • Facilities

    • Information

    • Knowledge

Strategic Planning

  • Strategic Planning involves diagnosing the organization’s internal and external environments.

    • internal factor: morale of workers

    • external factor: what is the marketplace?

  • Requires conceptualizing the past, present, and future. What’s successful? Are we moving in the right direction? What does the future look like?

  • Strategic Process steps:

    • Determining stakeholders: anyone affected by organizational actions

    • Delineating values: a list of ideals guiding time, attention, and resources

    • Creating a vision: ideal future image; goal-oriented; encapsulates business direction

    • Drafting a mission: how the vision will be accomplished

    • Establishing goals and objectives: evaluate strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) for each goal/objective

  • SWOT analysis: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats

Practical Takeaways for the EP-C Context

  • Use SMART goals to align management and client objectives.

  • Leverage the Big Five to tailor leadership style and communication with clients and team members.

  • Recognize that an internal locus of control generally supports more proactive engagement in lifestyle changes, though individual differences exist.

  • Apply a blend of leadership models and theories depending on whether problems are technical (need established policies) or adaptive (require creativity, adaptability, and innovation).

  • For client programs, translate strategic planning concepts into actionable steps: define stakeholders (clients, clinicians, support networks), articulate values (health, well-being, sustainability), and set a clear vision/mission for the client’s health goals, backed by measurable objectives and SWOT-informed strategies.

Assignment Considerations (as per transcript)

  • Using the SMART principle, write one management goal and one client goal.

  • In regard to the Big Five traits, consider how much of each trait is needed to be a successful manager vs leader and why.

  • How would internal vs external locus of control influence a client’s response to healthy lifestyle adaptations? Which individual would likely be more successful and why?