Monuments of Art History: Architectural and Contextual Analysis of the Parthenon
Periodization in Art History
The Framework of Periodization: Art history as a discipline relies on the classification of objects into discrete temporal and spatial pockets called "periods." While these classifications are artificial, they are essential for constructing the narrative of how art and architecture developed over time.
The Three Major Periods of Greek Art: * The Archaic Period: Begins around the 7th century BCE (some scholars cite June or July) and has a definitive end date in April 480 BCE. This date marks the "watershed moment" of the Persian War when Persians sacked the Acropolis in Athens. * Developments: A highly creative and formative era that established mainstay genres: sculpture, painting, and architecture. * Specific Innovations: Birth of the nude male figure in sculpture; establishment of painting as a fine art (observed primarily through durable Greek vases, though monumental wooden panel and fresco paintings existed); the development of monumental marble architecture; the blooming of literature (Homer and Hesiod); the minting of coins as visual propaganda; and large-scale Mediterranean colonization. * The Classical Period: Spans from April 480 BCE to March 323 BCE, the date of Alexander the Great's death. * Characteristics: Labeled for traditional value judgments, this period is viewed as the culmination of an "ideal" kind of beauty. It aligns with the rise of Athenian democracy and the philosophy of humanism. * Humanism: A shift in focus from the authority of the divine to individual human actors. This influenced the development of history as a genre (recording human events rather than myths). * Artistic Achievements: Lifelike and active bronze sculpture; the peak of marble architecture (e.g., the Parthenon); performing arts such as tragedy and comedy (Great Dionysia Festival). * The Hellenistic Period: Begins in 323 BCE and lasts approximately three centuries until 31 BCE. This period ends with the Battle of Actium, where Octavian (later Augustus) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra, leading to the Roman annexation of the last Hellenistic (Ptolemaic) kingdom. * Geopolitics: Alexander's vast territories were divided among his generals, the Diadochi, into multiple kingdoms, creating a diverse, cosmopolitan society. * Artistic Shift: A turn toward theatricality, drama, and extreme emotions. Subject matter expanded to include "the other"—the old, the ugly, and the downtrodden—elements previously considered uncivilized in the Classical period.
Historical and Geopolitical Context
The Greco-Persian Wars: Occurring in the first two decades of the 5th century, these wars began with Ionian Greek cities on the west coast of modern-day Turkey revolting against the Persian Empire. * Invasions: * First Invasion: Led by King Darius I, landing at Marathon. * Second Invasion: Led by Xerxes ten years later. Xerxes successfully reached Athens and sacked the Acropolis in 480 BCE. * Athenian Response: Following the interpretation of the Delphic Oracle's "wooden walls" as warships by the general Themistocles, the Athenians abandoned the city. Greek victories at the naval battle of Salamis and the land battle of Plataea eventually secured independence.
The Ruins of the Acropolis: After the Persian sack, the Acropolis laid in ruins for approximately 32 years (a full generation). This included the destruction of the Athena Polias Temple, the predecessor to the Parthenon, and numerous votive sculptures known as Kouroi (yields) and Korai (maidens), many of which are now housed in the Acropolis Museum.
The Oath of Plataea: An ancient vow purportedly made by the Athenians not to rebuild their temples as a memorial to the Persian destruction. Modern scholars often view this as apocryphal, suggesting the 30-year delay was more likely due to a lack of resources.
The Delian League: A confederacy of Greek city-states under Athenian hegemony established to continue the fight against Persia. Originally centered on the sacred island of Apollo, Delos, the treasury was later moved to Athens by Pericles. This league's wealth financed the construction of the Parthenon.
Site Topography and the Civic Center of Athens
The Acropolis: The religious center of the city, sitting on a high plateau visible from all parts of Athens and the sea.
The Areopagus: Known as the "Rock of Ares," located near the Acropolis. According to legend, Ares was tried here by the gods for the murder of Poseidon's son. It served as the site for serious murder trials.
The Agora: Situated north of the Acropolis; the civic center and marketplace. It housed the Boule (council) and other civic buildings.
The Pnyx: The meeting place for the Ecclesia (assembly), representing direct democracy. It required a quorum of 6,000 citizens. The Pnyx had a direct sightline to the Propylaea (gateway) of the Acropolis.
Pericles and the Golden Age: Pericles, a general and statesman, is the defining figure of mid-5th century Athens. * Portraiture: Surviving Roman copies (herms) show him in an idealized style with a neutral expression. He is depicted wearing a helmet, which ancient sources claim masked a head deformity (leading to the nickname "leak head"). * Funeral Oration: A famous speech delivered after the first year of the Peloponnesian War. Pericles praised democracy, the idea of arete (excellence), and kleos (everlasting glory), urging citizens to fix their eyes on the greatness of Athens until filled with love for her.
Architecture of the Parthenon
Basic Construction Principle: The Parthenon utilizes the Post and Lintel system, which relies on vertical posts and horizontal lintels. * Contrast: This differs from the Arch system (later popularized by Romans), which uses rounded forms to divert weight onto piers, allowing for massive structures like the Pantheon or the Colosseum (barrel and groin vaults).
Architects and Directors: * Ictinus: The architect responsible for the creative vision. * Kallikratis: The engineer responsible for technical implementation. * Phidias: The artistic director overseeing the sculptural program.
General Specifications: * Material: Constructed entirely of Pentelic marble from Mount Pentelicon in Attica. This includes the roof tiles, which were thin enough to be translucent and allow natural light into the interior. * Construction Duration: It took approximately 8 years to build the structure and a few additional years for the sculptures.
Temple Layout (Plan): * East-West Orientation: The front facade always faces East toward the rising sun. * Pronaos: The front vestibule. * Naos (Cella): The heart of the temple housing the cult statue, the Athena Parthenos. * Opisthodomos: The back room (West side) used for storing valuables. * Peristyle: The colonnade surrounding the entire building. * Adaton: A unique back room in the Parthenon (marked by four interior columns) used possibly as a treasury for the Delian League.
The Architectural Orders
The Doric Order: Associated with Mainland Greece; characterized as masculine and minimalist. * Columns: No base; sharp-edged fluting; stocky proportions. * Capital: Simple echinus (straight-edge). * Entablature: Includes a frieze divided into metopes (square slabs, often carved) and triglyphs (three vertical stripes).
The Ionic Order: Associated with Ionia (Asia Minor); characterized as elegant and feminine. * Columns: Includes a base; flat-edged fluting; slender and tall. * Capital: Decorated with volutes (spirals). * Entablature: Features a continuous frieze without triglyph/metope divisions.
Mixing of Orders in the Parthenon: The Parthenon is primarily a Doric temple but uniquely incorporates Ionic elements: * Four Ionic columns in the back room (adaton). * A continuous Ionic frieze running along the outer walls of the Naos (Sella). * Ideological interpretation: Incorporating both orders suggests Athens was claiming the best of both the Doric and Ionian cultural heritages.
Numerology and Optical Refinements
Numerology: The building follows precise mathematical ratios, likely rooted in Pythagorean philosophy (the universe as a harmonious ordered system). * The Ratio: This ratio governs the height and width of the facade, the width and length of the building, and the intercolumniation (the distance from column center to center, where column diameter is 4 and spacing is 9). * The Formula: Determines column count. For the Parthenon, which has 8 columns on the facade, the side columns are calculated as .
Optical Refinements: Subtle adjustments made to correct visual illusions or enhance aesthetic presence: * Curvature of the Stylobate: The platform is not flat but follows an upwardly curved parabola. The center is approximately higher than the edges. This prevents the platform from appearing to "sag" visually. * Inward Leaning Columns: Columns lean slightly toward the center. If their lines were extended, the north/south columns would converge at , and the east/west columns at . This provides a "forced perspective" making the building look taller and more stable. * Entasis: A slight bulging or swelling in the column shaft. This corrects the optical illusion that a perfectly straight column looks hollow or concave, and gives the stone an "organic" appearance as if reacting to the weight of the roof.
Religious and Civic Significance
Incarnations of Athena on the Acropolis: * Athena Nike: Goddess of Victory. * Athena Promachos: "First in battle"; a colossal bronze statue by Phidias made with spoils from the Battle of Marathon. * Athena Polias: The civic goddess; a primordial wooden statue housed in the Erechtheion. * Athena Parthenos: The virgin goddess; the enormous gold-and-ivory (chryselephantine) cult statue inside the Parthenon, symbolizing the purity and intellect of the Athenian ideal.
The Panathenaic Festival: A yearly festival (and a "Great" festival every four years) celebrating the goddess's birthday. It involved a procession from the Dipylon Gate through the Agora and up to the Acropolis for a hecatomb (sacrifice of 100 animals).
Post-Classical History: * 6th Century CE: Converted to a Christian church. * 15th Century: Converted to a mosque by Ottoman Turks. * 1687: A Venetian cannonball hit the temple, which was being used as a gunpowder magazine by the Turks, causing a massive explosion. * 1801–1816: Lord Elgin, British Ambassador, removed much of the sculpture and sold it to the British Museum, sparking the ongoing "Elgin Marbles" repatriation debate.