progressive action

Section Three: Progressive Action

Overview

  • The early 20th century (1900-1920) experienced significant reforms that transformed American politics and the role of government in the economy.
  • Presidential power increasingly challenged corporate trusts.
  • Congress enacted substantial regulations on finance and industry.
  • Health and safety regulations, direct democracy, and restrictions on corporate influence in politics were adopted at state and city levels.

The Progressive Era

  • This period, often referred to as the "progressive era," saw four amendments added to the federal constitution, including:
    • The graduated income tax.
    • Women's right to vote.

Historiographical Perspectives on Progressive Action

  • Historians have proposed various explanations for the surge in progressive reforms:
    • A transformation in the nature of the presidency.
    • Example: The assassination of President William McKinley in September 1901 led to Vice President Theodore Roosevelt assuming the presidency.

Theodore Roosevelt as a Catalyst

  • Theodore Roosevelt's Characteristics
    • Known for his energy and activism.
    • Disregarded laissez-faire policies; believed in government intervention for public good.
    • Advocated for restrictions on corporate money in politics.
  • Notable Actions
    • Initiated significant antitrust cases against major corporations, particularly Standard Oil.

The Role of the Middle Class

  • The expansion of the middle class during this era:
    • Growth in white-collar jobs (managers, accountants, engineers, salespersons).
    • Urban population surge; e.g., New York's population increased fivefold (to nearly 5 million) between 1870 and 1910.
    • Chicago grew rapidly, reaching 2 million residents.
  • Muckraking journalism:
    • Exposed immigrant squalor and corruption in urban political machines.
    • Urban coalitions emerged to advocate municipal reforms to diminish corporate control.

Women's Role in Progressive Reform

  • Women's clubs, settlement houses, and consumer leagues campaigned for:
    • Food and drug safety.
    • Sanitation measures.
    • Child labor laws.
    • Other protections for women and children.

Significant Muckrakers and Their Works

  • Lincoln Steffens: "The Shame of the Cities" (1904)
    • Highlighted the connections between big business and corrupt politicians.
  • Upton Sinclair: "The Jungle" (1906)
    • Exposed unsanitary practices in the meatpacking industry, spurring reform.
  • Jacob Riis: "How the Other Half Lives" (1890)
    • Documented poor living conditions in urban slums.
  • Ida Tarbell: "The Rise of the Standard Oil Company" (1904)
    • Exposed corrupt practices of the Standard Oil monopoly.
  • Lewis Hine: "Child Labor: Girls in Factory" (1908)
    • Photographic evidence of hazardous child labor conditions.
  • Nellie Bly: "Ten Days in a Mad-House" (1887)
    • Investigated abuses in mental health institutions.

The Influence of Radicalism and Socialism

  • Radical movements and socialism were pivotal in fostering progressive reforms:
    • Heightened anti-capitalist and socialist sentiment post-1905.
    • The socialist party drew support from:
    • European immigrants in urban centers.
    • Farmers and laborers in areas like Kansas and Oklahoma.
  • 1912: Socialists held about 1,200 public offices throughout the U.S.
  • Alan Dawley’s Observation:
    • "No socialism, no progressivism":
    • Positive aspect: Cooperation between socialists and progressives on reform initiatives.
    • Negative aspect: Reform seen by progressives as a means to counter radicalism.
    • Example: Sinclair's "The Jungle" influenced both anti-capitalism and consumer protection measures leading to the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906).

The 1912 Presidential Election

  • The election was characterized by a split in the Republican party:
    • William Taft represented the old guard.
    • Theodore Roosevelt led the breakaway progressives (Bull Moose Party).
  • Woodrow Wilson, a reformed Democrat, won a plurality.
  • Eugene Debs, as the socialist candidate, garnered nearly a million votes.
  • Taft received approximately 23% of the vote as the only conservative candidate.

Political Reforms and Legislation

  • Major changes resulting from the era included:
    • Establishment of the Federal Reserve System (1913):
    • Regulated banking and controlled currency.
    • Creation of the Federal Trade Commission (1914):
    • Aimed to protect consumers and combat anti-competitive corporate practices.
    • Sixteenth Amendment (1913):
    • Instituted a graduated federal income tax, originally targeting upper incomes to fund a more active federal government and reduce wealth inequality.
Constitutional Amendments
  • Seventeenth Amendment (1913):
    • Ended selection of U.S. senators via state legislatures, instituted direct election by popular vote.
  • Nineteenth Amendment (1920):
    • Secured voting rights for women.

Support for Progressive Reforms

  • The primary support for progressive reforms came from:
    • Former populist districts in the Midwest, South, and West.
  • Recent scholarship indicates that progressive reforms were reactions to earlier populist movements:
    • Populist support for income tax, corporate regulation, and direct senator election influenced progressive political agendas.
    • Populist backing for women's suffrage in the 1890s helped gain support in the 1910s.

Southern Support and Misunderstandings

  • Misconceptions about the South’s role:
    • While many white Southerners protected white supremacy, some supported the progressive agenda.
    • Recognized benefits of the federal income tax for the economically struggling South.
  • Woodrow Wilson's election led to segregation in federal offices as part of post-war policies.

Impact of World War I

  • The onset of World War I in August 1914 diverted American political focus and fractured reform coalitions.
    • Earlier divisions seen in the Spanish-American War resurfaced.
    • The war hindered progressive initiatives; however, many reforms were already achieved before the conflict.

Legacy of the Progressive Era

  • By the onset of World War I, key reforms included:
    • Children attended school instead of working in mines and factories.
    • Consumers had improved safety in meat and medicines.
    • Workers' compensation laws provided support for industrial accident victims.
    • Enhanced access to credit and markets for farmers.
  • Although World War I interrupted reforms, the legacies of the progressive era persisted into the mid-20th century.