psych cp 6

Chapter 6: Memory

TABLE OF CONTENTS

  • Chapter at a Glance (p. 6-2)

  • Learning Objectives (p. 6-3)

  • Rapid Review (p. 6-4)

  • Lecture Guide (p. 6-6)

  • What Is Memory? (p. 6-6)

  • The Information-Processing Model: Three Memory Systems (p. 6-7)

  • Getting It Out: Retrieval of Long-Term Memories (p. 6-9)

  • What Were We Talking About? Forgetting (p. 6-11)

  • Neuroscience of Memory (p. 6-12)

  • Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Using Elaborative Rehearsal to Make Memories More Memorable (p. 6-13)

  • Chapter Summary (p. 6-13)

  • Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 6-14)

  • Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 6-31)

  • Handout Masters (p. 6-46)

  • Revel Features (p. 6-57)

  • Practice Quizzes Answer Key (p. 6-59)

  • Test Yourself Answer Key (p. 6-59)

CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE

  • Detailed Outline

  • Instructor Resources

  • Revel Features

What Is Memory?

Three Processes of Memory

  • Memory is an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes it, stores it, and retrieves it.

    • Encoding: The set of mental operations performed on sensory information to convert it into usable forms for storage in the brain.

    • Storage: Holding onto information for a certain period.

    • Retrieval: Getting information out of memory storage in a usable form.

Models of Memory

  1. Information-Processing Model: Processes information similarly to a computer, in three stages.

  2. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model: Memory processes occur simultaneously across a vast network of neural connections.

  3. Levels-of-Processing Model: Information that is processed deeply (based on meaning) is more effectively remembered than information processed superficially (based on appearance or sound).

The Information-Processing Model: Three Memory Systems

Sensory Memory

  • Sensory Memory: The first memory system holding raw sensory information for brief durations.

    • Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second; includes eidetic imagery, which allows recall of visual memories for 30 seconds or more.

    • Echoic Memory: Auditory memory lasting 2–4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

  • Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds information for a brief period while it is actively being used.

  • Selective Attention: The focus on one stimulus among all sensory input to transfer information from sensory memory to STM.

    • Broadbent’s Bottleneck Model: Describes limits on the information processed.

    • Triesman’s Attenuation Theory: Suggests that some unattended messages do get through but at a reduced strength.

Working Memory

  • Working Memory: An active system that processes and manipulates short-term information.

  • Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information over and over to keep it in STM.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): System for the permanent storage of information.

    • Elaborative Rehearsal: Involves building additional retrieval cues by associating new information with existing knowledge.

    • Types of Long-Term Memory:

    • Nondeclarative (Implicit) Memory: Includes skills and procedures that affect actions but cannot be consciously recalled.

    • Declarative (Explicit) Memory: Contains information that can be consciously recalled.

      • Semantic Memory: Knowledge about facts liberal and concepts.

      • Episodic Memory: Personal memories of experiences.

    • Semantic Network Model: Information is stored in interconnected ways, with related concepts physically closer in the brain.

GETTING IT OUT: RETRIEVAL OF LONG-TERM MEMORIES

Retrieval Cues

  • Encoding Specificity: Better retrieval occurs when cues present at encoding are also available at retrieval.

  • State-Dependent Learning: The state's effect on retrieval; physiological or psychological states become cues for memories formed in those states.

Recall vs. Recognition

  1. Recall: Retrieving information with minimal external cues; includes the serial position effect (better memory of beginning and end items, known as primacy effect and recency effect).

  2. Recognition: Matching a stimulus with a stored image or fact.

Automatic Encoding and Flashbulb Memories

  • Automatic Encoding: Some information enters LTM effortlessly.

  • Flashbulb Memories: Detailed, vivid memories for unexpected, emotionally charged events.

Constructive Nature of Memory Retrieval

  • Constructive Processing: Memories are altered or influenced by new information during retrieval.

  • Hindsight Bias: The belief that one could have predicted an event after it has occurred, influenced by revisions of memory.

Memory Retrieval Problems

  • Misinformation Effect: New, misleading information alters memories of the original event.

  • False Memory Syndrome: The recollection of false memories stemming from suggestions by others.

WHAT WERE WE TALKING ABOUT? FORGETTING

The Curve of Forgetting

  • Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve: A graph showing rapid forgetting within the first hour after learning, followed by gradual retention.

  • Distributed Practice: Better recall achieved through spaced study sessions.

Reasons We Forget

  • Encoding Failure: Information fails to enter memory.

  • Memory Trace Decay Theory: Physical changes in the brain that lead to forgetting over time.

  • Interference Theory: Issues with memory retrieval:

    • Proactive Interference: Older information obstructs new information.

    • Retroactive Interference: New information obstructs retrieval of older information.

NEUROSCIENCE OF MEMORY

Biological Bases of Memory

  1. Memories are stored in various brain regions:

    • Nondeclarative memories in the cerebellum.

    • Short-term memories in the prefrontal and temporal lobes.

    • Fear-related memories in the amygdala.

  2. Consolidation: Structural and functional changes in neurons when a memory is formed.

Causes of Amnesia

  1. Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of past memories.

  2. Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after injury.

  3. Alzheimer’s Disease: Begins with anterograde amnesia, progressing to retrograde amnesia as well.

  4. Infantile Amnesia: Difficulty retrieving memories from before age 3.

  5. Autobiographical Memory: Memory pertaining to personal life events.

APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE: Using Elaborative Rehearsal to Make Memories More Memorable

  • Elaborative Rehearsal Techniques:

    • Connecting new information to existing knowledge.

    • Paraphrasing information.

    • Finding personal relevance or personal examples.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises

  • Crossword Puzzle

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