Memory Vocabulary Flashcards (Video Notes)
Working Memory Model
- Central Executive: the "manager" of working memory that directs attention and decides what information to focus on or combine.
- Phonological Loop: the part of working memory that temporarily stores and rehearses sounds or words.
- Visuospatial Sketchpad: the part of working memory that temporarily stores and manipulates images, shapes, and spatial layouts.
- Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: basic processes of memory (getting information IN, keeping information, bringing stored information back into awareness).
- Automatic Processing vs. Effortful Processing:
- Automatic Processing: processing that occurs without us being aware of it.
- Effortful Processing: requires attention and conscious effort; often leads to better long-term retention when used intentionally.
- Short-Term Memory (STM): a STM system that holds and actively manipulates information needed for problem solving tasks or following directions; information is stored for a short time.
- Long-Term Memory: what is carried over from STM and can be stored indefinitely based on its relative importance to the individual.
- Levels of Processing Model (overview): memory strength depends on depth of processing rather than simple rehearsal.
- Phonemic Processing (shallow): focuses on how something sounds (e.g., rhyming).
- Semantic Processing (deep): focuses on meaning and connections to existing knowledge.
- Processing that is deeper and more meaningful leads to better recall than shallow, surface-level processing.
Levels of Processing Model (detailed)
- Phonemic Processing: a middle level of processing focusing on sound features (how something sounds).
- Semantic Processing: a deep form of processing focusing on meaning and connections to prior knowledge.
- Shallow Processing: focuses on physical features (e.g., how a word looks).
- The idea: the more we think about and connect to information, the better we remember it.
Sensory Memory and Attention
- Iconic Memory: fleeting visual images stored briefly in sensory memory.
- Echoic Memory: auditory signals stored briefly in sensory memory.
- Selective Attention: the ability to focus on a portion of sensory input and ignore the rest.
- Cocktail Party Effect: the ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, while other stimuli fade.
- STM retention: small amounts of information carry over from sensory memory and are stored for up to about 30 seconds.
- Processing delay: information can be held in STM with some delay for manipulation and problem solving.
Memory Types and Explicit/Implicit Distinctions
- Explicit Memory (Declarative): memories we can consciously recall and tell others about.
- Episodic Memory: stories of our lives and experiences that we can recall (like episodes of a TV show).
- Semantic Memory: impersonal knowledge not tied to personal experience (e.g., names of colors, states, basic facts).
- Implicit Memory: memories retained without conscious effort and often without awareness that they are retrieved unconsciously.
- Procedural Memory: memories of how to do things (e.g., ride a bike, tie shoes).
- Iconic Memory: see above (visual memory).
- Echoic Memory: see above (auditory memory).
- Prospective Memory: remembering to carry out a planned action in the future.
- Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): a lasting strengthening of synapses that increases neurotransmission and makes memory recall stronger.
- Memory consolidation: the process of strengthening new memories and storing them in long-term memory, often during sleep.
- Memory consolidation vs. cramming: spreading learning over multiple shorter sessions improves retention; cramming (one extended session) is less effective for long-term memory.
- Massed Practice: cramming; less effective for long-term retention (e.g., in your house).
- Distributed Practice (Spacing): spreading study sessions over time; leads to better long-term memory.
- Encoding: getting information IN to memory.
- Storage: keeping information in memory.
- Retrieval: bringing stored information back into awareness.
- Primacy Effect: better memory for the first items in a list.
- Recency Effect: better memory for the last items in a list.
- Serial Position Effect: overall pattern of primacy and recency in list recall.
- Hierarchy: organizing information in levels from broad to specific to help memory.
Encoding Memories (Topic 2.4)
- Encoding: the process of getting information into memory.
- Consolidation: the process of strengthening new memories and storing them in long-term memory, often during sleep.
- Cramming vs. Spaced Learning:
- Cramming: trying to learn all at once in a single extended session; tends to produce poorer long-term retention.
- Distributed Practice: learning spread over multiple shorter sessions; improves long-term retention.
- Primacy Effect: tendency to remember beginning items in a list.
- Recency Effect: tendency to remember later items in a list.
- Context and state factors affecting encoding and retrieval:
- Context-Dependent Memory: memory retrieval is most efficient when in the same environment as when the memory was formed.
- Mood-Congruent Memory: recall better when in a mood similar to when the memory was formed.
- State-Dependent Memory: memory retrieval is more efficient when in the same state of consciousness as when memory was formed.
- Testing Effect: practicing by recalling information (quizzing yourself) strengthens memory more than just reviewing notes.
- Metacognition: thinking about your own thinking; knowing what you understand well and what you still need to study.
- Mnemonic Devices: any memory aid.
- Method of Loci: link information to familiar places in your mind (e.g., imagining items placed in rooms).
- Massed Practice: studying in one long block (e.g., in your house).
- Distributed Practice: spacing study sessions over time.
- Chunking: grouping bits of related information to increase recall.
- Categorization: grouping information into related sets or classes.
- Serial Position Effect: recall influenced by position in a sequence; includes Primacy and Recency effects.
- Hierarchy: organizing information in levels from broad to specific.
- Spacing Effect: spreading out study sessions over time improves long-term retention compared to cramming.
- Recall: the direct retrieval of facts or information without cues.
- Recognition: correct identification of previously learned material (cue-assisted).
- Retrieval: the process of bringing stored information back into awareness.
- Testing Effect: see above (revise).
- Context-Dependent Memory: retrieval is more efficient in the same environment as encoding.
- State-Dependent Memory: retrieval is easier when in the same state of consciousness as encoding.
- Mood-Congruent Memory: recall is facilitated when mood matches mood at encoding.
- Metacognition: thinking about one's own thinking; assessing what you understand well and what you still need to study.
Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges (Forgetting and memory distortions)
- Forgetting Curve: the exponential loss of information shortly after learning it.
- Proactive Interference: old learning interferes with the ability to learn new material.
- Retroactive Interference: new learning interferes with recall of old material.
- Repression: pushing painful memories out of awareness (defense mechanism).
- Source Amnesia: remembering someone or something but forgetting the source of the memory.
- Misinformation Effect: incorporating new information into memory and altering the original memory.
- Encoding Failure: memory was never formed in the first place; failure to encode.
- Constructive Memory: memory is shaped by expectations, knowledge, or new information, which can lead to errors.
- Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: the feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable.
- Imagination Inflation: repeatedly imagining an event makes you believe it actually happened, even if it did not.
- Imagination Inflation (expanded): repeated imagined events can distort memory of actual events.
- Source Monitoring Errors: difficulty remembering the source of a memory (e.g., book vs. movie).
Attention and Sleep (connections to memory processes)
- Attention plays a critical role in encoding; selective attention helps filter irrelevant stimuli and focus on meaningful input.
- Sleep supports consolidation of memories (noted in consolidation discussions).