Chapter 3: Liberalism and Nationalism in Germany, 1815-71
3.4 How and Why Was the Unification of Germany Achieved by 1871?
Bismarck's Diplomacy Towards France
Long-term Objectives:
It is not definitively clear that Otto von Bismarck actively sought war with France as a long-term goal.
Nonetheless, Bismarck was prepared to accept war if necessary, believing it could align with Prussia's interests.
He theorized that an external conflict portrayed as a threat to both southern Germany and the North German Confederation could catalyze complete unification.
Deterioration of Relations:
Relations between Prussia and France worsened following the Austro-Prussian War.
Napoleon III faced public pressure to obtain compensation for the powerful presence of Prussia on France's eastern border.
While Bismarck was not actively seeking war, he likely recognized that his actions could provoke France into aggression.
Reaction of South German States:
The southern German states (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt) were alarmed when they learned of Napoleon III's intentions to seize Luxembourg, subsequently turning against France.
Unexpected events elsewhere in Europe became advantageous for Bismarck.
The Spanish Succession Crisis
Abdication of Isabella:
In 1868, the Spanish Queen Isabella was forced to abdicate due to political pressures aimed at ending Bourbon rule in Spain.
Politicians selected Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a Catholic and relative of the Prussian royal family, as the new monarch.
Bismarck encouraged Leopold’s acceptance, fully aware it would provoke French outrage.
Timing of the Announcement:
A document confirming Leopold’s acceptance reached Madrid when the Spanish parliament was not in session, which was unforeseen.
The French government suspected a Prussian scheme to encircle France and pressured King Wilhelm to persuade Leopold to withdraw.
Manipulation of the Ems Telegram:
Wilhelm sent Bismarck details from a meeting with the French ambassador regarding the succession.
Upon receiving the Ems Telegram, Bismarck perceived a chance to portray France as unreasonable. He altered the original telegram to suggest that France demanded a humiliating acknowledgment from Prussia regarding Leopold's candidacy.
Bismarck created the impression that Wilhelm abruptly terminated discussions, significantly altering the intended message.
Moltke, upon reading the altered telegram, noted a change in tone, meaning the confrontation was framed more confrontationally.
Outbreak of War Against France, July 1870
Public Reaction:
Bismarck disseminated the edited Ems Telegram in both Germany and France, causing public outrage.
The indignation contributed to Napoleon's decision to declare war.
The conflict was seen beneficially by Bismarck, as it likely would unite the southern German states with the North German Confederation against France.
French Isolation:
France's choice to wage war in July 1870 was notably risky, as France was relatively isolated despite attempts to forge alliances.
France was perceived as the aggressor while Prussia maintained it was in a defensive posture.
Britain declined to support France, and Italy also withheld assistance.
The historical alliance between Russia and Austria was effectively non-existent by this time.
Prussian Military Superiority
Military Preparedness:
Prussia exhibited superior mobilization and war preparation compared to France.
The effectiveness of the Prussian general staff system became evident during the conflict, contrasting sharply with the French leadership’s disorganization.
Significant issues included a lack of maps for France and inadequate command structures.
Conscription and Training:
Prussian military strategy involved comprehensive, universal conscription followed by rigorous training.
In contrast, France’s reserve, the Garde Mobile, experienced only limited training each year.
The war mainly unfolded on French soil, often giving Prussia the strategic initiative.
Despite superior weaponry, such as the Chassepot rifle, the French troops were ineffectively deployed.
Decisive Battles:
In September 1870, Prussians won the Battle of Sedan, encircling a French force of 100,000.
French casualties numbered 17,000, whereas Prussian losses were around 8,000.
Following this defeat, Napoleon III was compelled to abdicate, leading to a revolutionary government being formed in Paris.
Guerrilla Warfare and Siege:
The newly formed republican government in Paris resolved to resist the Prussians through the winter.
Uneven guerrilla warfare tactics emerged in the French countryside to disrupt Prussian advances.
The siege of Paris resulted in severe hardships due to starvation and bombardment, culminating in surrender in January 1871.
Bismarck's Diplomatic Manipulation:
The defeat of France is partly attributed to Bismarck's diplomatic prowess, as he skillfully isolated France among European powers and leveraged nationalist sentiments to rally the southern German states.
Successes of the Prussian military and the leadership of Moltke were also prime factors.
Bismarck's readiness to take calculated risks was instrumental in achieving his unification goals.
The New Germany
Outcome of the War:
The conclusion of the Franco-Prussian War achieved full German unification; however, this was not entirely a victory for German nationalism.
Prussia emerged as the preeminent power within the newly unified Germany.
The solution adhered to a Kleindeutsch model, excluding Austria from the new German Empire.
Some southern states remained hesitant about joining the new structure, necessitating concessions from Bismarck for unification.
Ceremonial Proclamation of the Kaiser:
Bavaria, the largest southern state, sought particular powers to maintain autonomy, including control over its military.
An argument arose regarding the title of Wilhelm, who intended to be called "Emperor of Germany," but was ultimately designated as "German Emperor" (Kaiser) on January 18, 1871, in a ceremony at Versailles.
Treatment of France
Peace Terms Imposed by Bismarck:
Bismarck exploited France's vulnerability to enforce severe peace conditions through the Franco-German Treaty.
France was mandated to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs.
A German military presence was established in northern France until reparations were fulfilled.
Alsace and northern Lorraine were ceded to Germany for security against potential French reprisals.
Strategic Buffer Zone:
The annexed territories functioned as a buffer zone between France and the southern German states (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden).
This annexation was integral to portraying France as an aggressor in the post-war context.
Bismarck determined that, unlike Austria, France would not serve as a future ally, necessitating a purely power-based relationship.
Constitution of the New Reich
Differences from Preceding Nationalist Movements:
The new Reich's structure starkly contrasted with the national state envisioned by German liberals during the revolutions of 1848-49.
Unity was imposed from above by the Prussian monarchy rather than emerging from popular consent.
Constitutional Framework:
Modeled on the North German Confederation's constitution; power dynamics favored Prussia.
The Prussian king served as the Kaiser and commander-in-chief of the military.
Bismarck assumed the position of Imperial Chancellor, becoming the primary decision-maker until 1890.
The governmental structure was classified as a Furstenbund, or confederation of autonomous principalities.
Imperial Powers:
The emperor enjoyed extensive powers, including the appointment and dismissal of the Chancellor, the dissolution of the Reichstag, and responsibilities for foreign affairs and military command.
The Chancellor was accountable to the emperor rather than to parliament, holding significant influence over national governance.
Bicameral Legislature:
The Bundesrat (upper house) consisted of members designated by states and was crucial for lawmaking.
The Reichstag (lower house) was elected by adult males, possessing limited legislative initiation powers but the capacity to approve the national budget.
Members of the Reichstag were unpaid, and elections were regularly held every five years.
Military Authority:
The imperial government was vested with significant control over foreign policy, military, and customs systems.
The Prussian military dwarfed that of the other German states, with its budget beyond parliamentary scrutiny.
The new Germany reflected the monarchical and militaristic culture of Prussia.