exam expectations

Exam Prep Notes (Biology 1–6) – Based on Transcript

  • Exam logistics

    • Duration:

    • 85 minutes total. You’ll have a single class period to complete the test.

    • Instructor will arrive ~10 minutes early for students who want to start early.

    • Question format:

    • 75 multiple-choice questions, 4–5 answer choices each.

    • Time-per-question rule of thumb: about 1 minute per question if you know the material; more time won’t help if you don’t.

    • Accommodations:

    • If you have official accommodations for extra time through student services, your test will be adjusted accordingly.

    • If you do not have accommodations, the 85 minutes is the limit.

    • Allowed notes:

    • You may bring one page of handwritten notes (front side only) to use during the test; you’ll turn this in with the test.

  • Scope of the exam

    • Covers chapters 1–6, with a focus that skims a little through chapter 5 and into 6.

    • You will see some questions drawn from unit exams, but not all questions from those exams.

    • The test emphasizes both definitions and application; expect cross-topic questions that combine concepts from multiple sections.

    • The instructor aims to sample roughly equally from each chapter, rather than clustering questions in one chapter.

  • Core competencies and question types to expect

    • Distinguish between anatomy and physiology definitions; be able to identify which field (anatomist vs physiologist) a description describes.

    • Levels of organization (organism → organ system → organ → tissue → cell → molecule → atom) and application questions.

    • Example-style prompts:

    • Cardiac muscle: identify its level of organization (e.g., tissue level) and follow the tissue–organ–system chain.

    • Stratified columnar epithelium: determine its level of organization.

    • Homeostasis and feedback mechanisms

    • Negative feedback: resists change and returns the variable toward baseline.

    • Positive feedback: amplifies the change; typically less common; examples discussed include specific physiological scenarios.

    • Serous membranes and clinical context

    • Serous membranes (e.g., pleura) with visceral and parietal layers; serous fluid reduces friction.

    • Clinical anchor example mentioned: a collapsed lung scenario using imaging (X-ray/CT) and serous membranes; highlights relevance of serous membranes in disease.

    • Body cavities and directional terms

    • Be prepared to compare body cavities and use directional terms to describe relationships (superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral).

    • Example prompts include comparing orbital cavities to the abdominal cavity and determining the correct directional relationships (e.g., orbital cavities are superior to the pelvic cavity).

    • Abdominal nine-region system

    • Recognize and describe one of the nine regions (e.g., right/left hypochondriac, epigastric, umbilical, etc.).

    • Antebrachial and brachial regions

    • Use positional terms to describe relationships (e.g., antebrachial is distal to brachial).

    • Chemical bonds and solutions (Chapter 2 topics)

    • Ionic bonds vs covalent bonds; differences between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds.

    • Acids, bases, and neutral solutions; definitions of each and what the pH scale measures.

    • The pH scale: ext{pH} = -\, \log [H^+]

    • Types of chemical reactions (metabolism context)

    • Synthesis (anabolic): A + B → AB

    • Decomposition (catabolic): AB → A + B

    • Exchange (displacement): AB + CD → AD + CB

    • Reversible reactions: A + B ⇌ AB

    • Macromolecules overview (4 major types)

    • Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic acids

    • Monomer units:

      • Proteins: amino acids

      • Carbohydrates: monosaccharides (e.g., glucose)

      • Nucleic acids: nucleotides

      • Lipids: fatty acids and glycerol (varies by lipid type)

    • Functions (general):

      • Proteins: enzymes, structural components, signaling, transport, immune function, etc.

      • Carbohydrates: energy source and storage; some roles in structure and signaling; generally soluble in water.

      • Lipids: energy storage, membranes, signaling molecules; typically not soluble in water.

      • Nucleic acids: store and transmit genetic information (DNA, RNA).

    • Chemical characteristics and solubility

      • Carbohydrates are usually water-soluble; lipids are typically not water-soluble.

      • Solubility affects transport in blood; non-soluble lipids require carrier proteins for transport.

    • Primary sequence and structure of proteins

      • Primary structure = amino acid sequence; folding leads to three-dimensional structure and function.

      • Folding can be affected by environment (pH, temperature, etc.).

    • Practical implications

      • Why solubility matters for transport and metabolism in the bloodstream.

    • Phenylketonuria (PKU) as a critical-thinking example

    • PKU is a hereditary condition where phenylalanine cannot be properly metabolized.

    • Phenylalanine accumulation can lead to intellectual disabilities and other symptoms if not managed.

    • Reasoning strategy described: because phenylalanine is an amino acid and amino acids are constituents of proteins, the question can be answered by logical deductions about diet and protein intake, even without PKU-specific knowledge.

    • Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) and neurodegenerative disease link

    • Misfolded protein buildup triggers the unfolded protein response (UPR).

    • Prolonged UPR is associated with neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson's disease).

    • Key organelle involved in protein folding (where misfolded proteins accumulate) is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

    • Cellular respiration and energy metabolism (Chapter 2–3 integration)

    • Glucose is a primary substrate; energy is stored in ATP.

    • Glycolysis (occurs in cytosol): produces 2\,\text{pyruvate} per glucose, along with net 2\,\text{ATP} and NADH/NAD+ balance.

    • Mitochondria: site of Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) and electron transport chain; produce ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.

    • ATP synthesis: \text{ATP} \rightarrow \text{ADP} + \text{P_i} + \text{energy}

    • ATP synthase uses the proton gradient to convert ADP + Pi into ATP.

    • Short overview pathway: glycolysis → pyruvate → acetyl-CoA → Krebs cycle → ETC → ATP.

    • Note: Substrates and intermediates (e.g., glucose, pyruvate) and the role of mitochondria are touched upon; deeper substrate specifics are covered in later notes.

    • DNA, RNA, transcription, translation, and tRNA

    • DNA stores genetic information; transcription produces mRNA; translation uses mRNA to synthesize proteins; tRNA helps add amino acids during translation.

    • These concepts were introduced (not exhaustively covered in notes) and are important for understanding genetic information flow.

  • Cellular structure and transport (high-yield topics)

    • Cell membranes and movement across membranes

    • Diffusion: movement of solutes down their concentration gradient; can be simple or facilitated (requires a carrier protein).

    • Osmosis: diffusion of water across a membrane; direction depends on osmotic gradients (water moves toward higher osmotic pressure).

    • Example reasoning for osmosis: if extracellular solute concentration (e.g., Mannose) is higher than intracellular, water tends to move out of the cell (toward higher osmotic pressure outside).

    • Other forms of transport: describe types and when they occur; the exam may ask to compare diffusion, osmosis, and other transport mechanisms.

    • Membrane structure and selective permeability

    • Lipid bilayer characteristics; impacts of polarity and solubility for transport of molecules.

    • Organelles (Chapter 3 focus in transcript)

    • General morphology and roles of organelles.

    • Relevance to protein production and trafficking (e.g., ER involvement in folding; mitochondria in energy production; nucleus in genetic information).

    • The cell cycle and its regulation

    • Stages: Interphase (G1, S, G2) and M-phase (mitosis and cytokinesis).

    • Key events: DNA replication during S phase; chromosome separation during mitosis; regulation by cell-cycle genes.

    • Cancer connection: cancer arises when mitosis proceeds too frequently or unchecked; involvement of genes that regulate the cell cycle (e.g., proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes).

  • Metabolism and energy production (integrative view)

    • Energy in the body is chemical energy stored in bonds; to access energy, bonds must be broken; to store energy, bonds are formed.

    • ATP as the main energy-carrying molecule in cells.

    • Enzymes and metabolic pathways

    • Enzymes catalyze metabolic reactions and guide pathways; their shape is critical to function.

    • Factors affecting enzyme activity include pH and temperature (environmental changes).

    • Water, solubility, and transport in blood

    • Because the body is largely water, solubility determines transport; carriers transport non-water-soluble molecules (e.g., lipids) in blood.

  • Integumentary system (brief overview)

    • General parts and tissues: skin, hair, nails, glands, and related structures.

    • Functions touched on include thermoregulation and protective roles; additional functions such as barrier protection and sensation are implied.

  • Key equations and core concepts (LaTeX)

    • pH and hydrogen ion concentration:

    • \text{pH} = -\log[H^+]

    • ATP energy release:

    • \text{ATP} \rightarrow \text{ADP} + \text{P_i} + \text{energy}

    • Glycolysis premise (from transcript):

    • \text{Glucose} \rightarrow 2\ \text{pyruvate} + \text{(net 2 ATP)} + \text{NADH}

    • Four basic reaction types (symbolic forms):

    • Synthesis: A + B \rightarrow AB

    • Decomposition: AB \rightarrow A + B

    • Exchange: AB + CD \rightarrow AD + CB

    • Reversible: A + B \rightleftharpoons AB

    • Regions and directional terms (conceptual relationships; no single formula)

    • Example: