Comprehensive Study Guide for European History (1200-Present)

Political Systems and Global Statecraft From $1200$ to the Present

In the period spanning $1200$ to $1450$, Europe was characterized by Decentralized Feudalism. This political system was structured around a specific hierarchy of Kings, lords, knights, and serfs. During this time, lords held more power than kings, which resulted in local rule being significantly more powerful than centralized authority. As the era transitioned into $1450$ to $1750$, the political landscape shifted toward the formation of Maritime Empires. Rulers utilized the economic policy of mercantilism to claim overseas territories, leading to the development of absolute monarchies. There was intense competition for global trade routes, and monarchs actively finaced sea exploration to expand their influence.

From $1750$ to $1900$, the influence of Enlightenment ideas sparked multiple revolutions and the rise of nation-states. This era saw a significant expansion of overseas empires through imperialism. A key event during this time was the Scramble for Africa, which was formalised by the Berlin Conference in the $1880$s. In the modern era from $1900$ to the Present, political life has been defined by Global Conflict and massive shifts. This includes the experience of Total wars, specifically WWI and WWII, followed by the Cold War. The period is marked by the transition from colonial empires to decolonization and the subsequent rise of international organizations such as the EU and the UN.

Technological Innovations and Scientific Transfers

Between $1200$ and $1450$, significant intellectual transfers occurred at the end of the period, largely originating from the Islamic world. These transfers included Greek philosophy and advanced medical knowledge. The printing press also saw its development towards the end of this time frame. During the Maritime Empire period from $1450$ to $1750$, European developments in ship design and navigation tools were heavily influenced by Classical and Islamic worlds. Two specific ship types emerged: the caravel, which featured a shallow bottom allowing it to travel safely along coasts to explore new places, and the carrack, which was larger and more durable. This era also marked the increased use of gunpowder and cannons, alongside the Scientific Revolution occurring in the $1500$s and $1600$s.

The period from $1750$ to $1900$ was dominated by Industrialization. The First Industrial Revolution was defined by the rise of steam power and the factory system, beginning in GB. This was followed by the Second Industrial Revolution, which shifted focus toward steel, chemicals, and electricity. From $1900$ to the Present, the world has seen High Tech and Medical advances. Rapid progress in communication, such as the internet, and transportation has been accompanied by medical innovations like vaccines and antibiotics, which significantly increased life expectancy.

Environmental Shifts, Global Exchanges, and Resource Management

During the years $1200$ to $1450$, Europe was a primarily rural and Agricultural Society. Crop success or failure had a direct impact on population growth and social stability. Trading along the Silk Roads brought the Bubonic Plauge to the continent via fleas on rats. Additionally, the Little Ice Age caused widespread famine and a bad economy. From $1450$ to $1750$, the Columbian Exchange facilitated the exchange of crops, animals, and diseases between the Eastern and Western hemispheres. Key items brought from the Americas to Europe included potatoes, corn, tomatoes, and tobaco. The Little Ice Age continued to impact agriculture throughout this period.

The environment from $1750$ to $1900$ was shaped by Urbanization and Extraction. The global demand for raw materials led to the creation of export economies. Rapid urbanization resulted in significant pollution and public health crises. Moving into the period from $1900$ to the Present, Globalization and Climate became central concerns. The Green Revolution increased food productivity globally, but globalization also led to increased resource depletion and ongoing debates over climate change.

Cultural Frameworks, Religious Transformations, and Intellectual Revolutions

In the medieval period from $1200$ to $1450$, Christinaity was the dominant force, and the Church was extremely powerful. This era witnessed the Great Schism, which was the split between West Europe, which remained Catholic, and East Europe, which became Orthodox. The Renaissance also began, marking a rebirth of art and philosophy that celebrated humans. Between $1450$ and $1750$, the Reformation and Enlightenment altered the cultural landscape. The Protestant Reformation caused a split in Western Christianity, while the Spanish Inquisition sought to maintain religious orthodoxy. The Enlightenment began applying reason to old assumptions regarding race and religion. These ideas influenced government styles by suggesting people are born with natural rights, power should reside with the people, and representative government is ideal.

Culture from $1750$ to $1900$ was defined by the growth of new Ideologies, including liberalism, socialism, and communism. Nationalism rose to become a primary cultural and political identity. In the modern era from $1900$ to the Present, a Globalized Culture emerged. Consumer culture became a global phenomenon that transcended national borders. Simultaneously, rights-based discourses began to challenge traditional assumptions regarding race, gender, and class.

Economic Structures: From Manorial Systems to Globalized Capitalism

From $1200$ to $1450$, the economic system was the Manorial System, where serfs were tied to the land in rural villages. The Bubonic Plauge eventually led to a decrease in serfdom because the labor shortage caused by a decreased population allowed survivors to increase their demands. The era of $1450$ to $1750$ was defined by Mercantilism. This economic policy focused on maximizing a nation's wealth through strict government regulation. Wealth was determined by the possession of silver and gold, maintaining a favorable balance of trade (exporting more than importing), and gaining colonies for raw materials. The rise of joint-stock companies, which were companies owned by multiple sharehokders, helped finance global exploration and trade. After the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, Europeans were forced to find different trade routes to Asia to acquire luxury goods. Due to religious strife between Christians and Muslims, Europeans were barred from trading via Constantinople. Because overland trade was more expensive, they turned to the Atlantic Ocean to find a route to the Indian Ocean. During this time, Portugal established trading posts, while Spain took control of silver mines in the Americas. This silver was brought back to Europe, leading to inflation, and was also used to purchase Chinese products.

Between $1750$ and $1900$, the system shifted to Industrial Capitalism. Mercantilism was abandoned in favor of laissez-faire capitalism and free trade. This period saw the growth of large-scale transnational businesses and the use of Imperialism to secure raw materials for mother countries to process in factories before selling the finished products back to the colonies. From $1900$ to the Present, economics shifted between command economies, associated with communism, and free markets. High levels of economic integration have been achieved through globalization.

Social Hierarchies, Interactions, and Changing Class Dynamics

The social order from $1200$ to $1450$ was a Rigid Hierarchy consisting of three groups: the Clergy, the Nobility, and the Peasantry. Social status was largely fixed by birth. The Crusades, which were attempts by Christians to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslims, were driven by religion and a desire for fame and wealth. The results of the Crusades included cultural exchange, an increase in the ecnomy, the weakening of feudalism, and increased religious tension. In the period from $1450$ to $1750$, New Elites emerged as the nobility faced challenges from merchants and investors. This era also saw the persecution of groups like Jews in Spain and Portugal. Furthermore, new families with differing degrees of European ethnicity developed due to travel to the New World in the Americas.

From $1750$ to $1900$, Class Conflict became a major social issue with the emergence of the middle class and the industrial working class. Movements for labor unions and women's suffrage began to rise during this time. Finally, in the era from $1900$ to the Present, social dynamics were influenced by the movement of formerly colonized peoples to former Imperialist nations, known as metropoles.