OCR A LEVEL HISTORY: FROM PITT TO PEEL 1783-1846 - Chapter 1 Notes
Chapter 1: Pitt the Younger
This chapter examines William Pitt's financial and administrative reforms after becoming Prime Minister in 1783, his efforts to boost trade, and his handling of post-American Revolution challenges. It also assesses the French Revolution's impact on Britain, the threat posed by radical movements, and Pitt's response. The divisions among the Whig opposition and their role in Pitt's long tenure are also analysed.
Key Issues
George III's support for Pitt: Why was it given and why was it crucial?
The Election of 1784: What was its significance?
Financial and Administrative Reforms: How did Pitt reform finance and administration, and how successful was he?
Trade Policies: What was the importance of Pitt's trade policies?
French Revolution: What impact did the French Revolution have on Britain and on Pitt's policies?
Radical Threats: How serious were the threats from radicals, and how effectively did Pitt address them?
Whig Opposition: Why was the Whig opposition divided, and how important was it for Pitt remaining in power?
Timeline
1783: William Pitt appointed prime minister
1784 May: Pitt wins the general election
1784 October: India Act
1786 September: Eden Treaty
1786 September: Sinking fund
1788 November: Illness of George III leads to the regency crisis
1789 July: Storming of the Bastille and beginning of the French Revolution
1793 March: Pitt declares war on revolutionary France
1794 May: The suspension of Habeas Corpus; Leading Whigs join Pitt's Government
1797 April-May: Naval mutinies
1798 May: Rebellion in Ireland
1799 December: Income tax introduced
1801 March: Pitt resigns
1804 May: Pitt returns as prime minister
1806 16 January: Pitt dies
Overview
British colonists in America sought independence in 1776, leading to conflict and British defeat.
Britain had thirteen colonies on the Atlantic seaboard of North America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
After the Seven Years War, Britain attempted to tax the colonies to pay for the war, leading to the colonists' argument of "taxation without representation".
A series of incidents triggered armed conflict.
King George III (reigned 1760-1820) and his prime minister, Lord North (1770–82), faced opposition from Whigs who sympathized with the colonists.
The King appointed William Pitt the Younger as prime minister in 1783, despite initial opposition in the House of Commons.
The 1784 general election resulted in a significant victory for Pitt.
With the support of parliament and the King, Pitt initiated financial and administrative reforms.
Pitt's reforms were implemented carefully to avoid opposition, with some questioning his genuine reformist intentions versus maintaining the status quo.
Plans to reform parliament or end the slave trade were not pursued, and attempts to allow Roman Catholics to become Members of Parliament also failed.
Pitt's modernizing reforms enhanced his reputation, particularly early in his career, due to royal support.
A near-end to Pitt's career occurred in 1788 during George III's mental illness; the King's recovery prevented Pitt's replacement by Charles James Fox.
The French Revolution in 1789 contrasted with Pitt's reforms, leading to fears of radical ideas spreading to Britain.
From 1793, Britain was at war with France, impacting expenditure, but Pitt's reforms facilitated financing the war primarily through taxation.
Pitt's naval reforms were important for British victories, and British financial strength enabled subsidizing allies.
Pitt resigned in 1801 due to failing to gain royal support for Catholic Emancipation, following the Irish rebellion in 1798 and the Act of Union in 1800.
Pitt returned to office in 1804 and continued the struggle against France until his death in 1806.
Why Did Pitt Have the Support of George III?
William Pitt was asked to form a government by George III on 19 December 1783. At 24 years old, he had been a member of parliament for only four years.
Pitt’s appointment surprised many, and its longevity was doubted.
Despite being the son of a famous statesman, Pitt had limited political experience.
The cabinet mostly sat in the House of Lords.
The House of Commons was dominated by the Whigs, led by Charles James Fox, and the supporters of Lord North.
Pitt relied on the King’s support to remain in power because his government could have been rendered powerless by votes against him in the House of Commons.
Constitutional Monarchy
This is a system in which a hereditary monarch rules with an elected assembly, choosing a government acceptable to parliament.
King George III
George III appointed Pitt prime minister in 1783.
He reigned from 1760, succeeding the Stuart monarchs. The first two Georges were German, but George III was raised in Britain.
He disliked party conflict and opposed the war against the American colonists.
He played a significant role in Pitt's rise but was not personally close to him.
In 1788, he suffered a mental illness, possibly porphyria, which had psychological effects; he had relapses in 1801 and 1804.
By 1811, he was too ill to continue, with his son ruling as prince regent from 1811 to 1820 and then as King George IV.
Pitt's Career Until 1783
William Pitt the Younger was born in 1759. His father was the Earl of Chatham, a prominent statesman who led Britain to victory in the Seven Years War (1756–63), resulting in British dominance in Canada and India.
His mother was the sister of a former Whig prime minister.
Due to ill health, he was educated at home and attended Cambridge at fourteen, later becoming a lawyer in 1780.
Through a university friend, Pitt became a MP for Appleby, a 'pocket borough,' controlled by James Lowther.
Initially a reformer, Pitt sought to end the corrupt voting system and opposed the war against the American colonies.
His speeches and intellect gained attention, and in 1782, he became chancellor of the exchequer under the Whig Earl of Shelburne.
Charles James Fox refused to join the new government and allied with Lord North, his former adversary.
Their parliamentary support led the King to dismiss Shelburne and appoint the Duke of Portland as prime minister, known as the Fox-North coalition.
The King favored Pitt and appointed him as prime minister, despite his youth and limited parliamentary following.
Charles James Fox
Charles James Fox (1749-1806) was the third son of Lord Holland and nephew to the Whig leader, the Marquess of Rockingham.
MP in 1768 for the family 'pocket borough' at Midhurst, Sussex.
He opposed the war against the American colonies and was disliked by the King.
He was foreign secretary in 1782 but would not serve under Lord Shelburne, a former colleague, and he united with Lord North.
He returned to office in the Fox-North coalition and then went into opposition against Pitt until 1806, dying the same year.
Committed to reducing the influence of the crown and supporting popular rights.
Pitt's Appointment and Challenges
Pitt had no popular following, becoming a MP through nomination for the 'pocket borough' of Appleby, and had been chancellor of the exchequer for only nine months.
He lacked charm and seemed unlikely to win over MPs.
George III sought an able and loyal prime minister to replace the Whigs and disliked the coalition between the Whigs and Lord North.
Without support in the House of Commons, Pitt could not govern, potentially showing the King's powerlessness.
The King balanced Pitt's abilities and independence with his youth and inexperience.
Pitt's power depended on the King's confidence.
Two comments about Pitt's new government were that it was 'the mince pie ministry' (short-lived) and the verse: "A sight to make surrounding nations stare; A kingdom trusted to a school-boy's care."
Everything depended on whether there would be an immediate election or whether Pitt could first establish a reputation.
In January 1784, the King urged Pitt to call an election, concerned about his lack of majority support.
Pitt urged the King to stand firm, believing the opposition would not force an election.
The King ultimately supported Pitt, who held on for three months without a majority, hoping the King's agents would use royal influence and that he would establish a reputation.
The King used his influence in the House of Lords to persuade peers to support the balance between the King, Lords, and Commons.
Pitt spoke well in the House of Commons, appeared dignified, ignored defeats, and gained support from independent MPs.
Independents
Independent MPs were not linked to a party and gave allegiance to trusted ministers, primarily associated with the counties.
There were 92 county MPs, whose status as landed gentry or relatives of peers gave them independence.
Pitt often had their support.
After 1784, there was a distinct group of 'Pittite' MPs, as well as Fox's followers in opposition.
By March 1784, Pitt passed the Mutiny Bill, which, if defeated, would have shown that Pitt lacked the authority to govern.
Factors Contributing to Pitt's Advantage by March 1784
He had set out ideas for reform.
He seemed loyal and patriotic, supporting the King against selfish and powerful Whigs.
He had won the respect of independent MPs and introduced a bill to bolster the representation of the independent 'county' members.
He gained respect for his integrity by refusing to accept royal sinecures.
He had public recognition, especially in constituencies with larger electorates.
He had John Robinson's support, an expert in gaining support of owners of rotten boroughs.
More than 100 MPs who had supported Fox and the Whig lords lost their seats due to the King's backing.
In the House of Lords, Pitt had a majority because of peers linked to George III's household, strengthened by the creation of new, loyal peers.
The bishops of the Church of England tended to favor the crown.
Peers loyal to the King were influential in getting MPs elected because they controlled many of the small boroughs.
Pitt was able to use royal patronage to reward supporters.
Pitt's rise depended heavily on George III's support.
The election depended on the influence of the crown, but also on the appeal of a principled, reform-minded politician and dislike of the Fox-North coalition.
Patronage
Having a 'patron' was not considered shameful; patrons supported artists and musicians, and in politics, MPs owed their seats to patrons.
Influential government men rewarded followers with offices, lasting until formal examinations and merit-based promotion took hold.
Significance of the 1784 Election
The election results can be explained in different ways.
In Westminster, Fox gained support through popular enthusiasm, with the Whig Countess of Devonshire and the Prince of Wales supporting him.
In other areas, local influence and backstairs deals saw Pitt supporters returned, managed by Robinson and Henry Dundas.
The East India Company's patronage was also important in the boroughs its members represented.
Composition of the 558 MPs Elected
52 regularly supported Pitt.
138 were supporters and followers of Charles James Fox.
183 were independent gentlemen/supporters of current Government.
185 were 'crown party' members.
Factors Explaining the Outcome of the Election of 1784
The use of influence and patronage by royal agents helped return MPs loyal to Pitt.
Pittites won in contests that returned independent MPs.
Independents were impressed by Pitt's strong impression and his father's reputation.
Pitt attracted those favoring reform and a more principled type of politics.
The alliance between Fox and North was seen as lacking principles.
The election was mostly owed to royal influence.
Pitt remained independent-minded and upright.
In 1784, Pitt had support from the Lords, the Commons, and the King.
How and With What Success Did Pitt Reform Finance and Administration?
Why Reform Finance and Administration?
Pitt's reforms between 1784 and 1792 did not result from a carefully considered plan.
Pitt was influenced by his time as chancellor of the exchequer under Shelburne, who had ideas about modernizing finance and government.
The country saw the defeat in the American War (1776-83) as proof of ineffective governments.
The many overseas wars of the eighteenth century led to heavy spending, increased taxation, and a growing role of the state, which seemed associated with corruption.
Servicing the growing national debt consumed an increasing portion of government income.
Pitt's reputation was based on a desire for cheaper and more efficient government.
There was a strong feeling for Britain to be more 'moral' and 'pure,' reflected in honest administration.
John Brewer said Britain had become a 'fiscal-military' state by 1783, where wars led to more taxation and armed forces, accompanied by corruption.
Pitt's plan was to reduce corruption, generate income, increase wealth, and make administration more modern and cost-effective.
The measures were piecemeal because Pitt did not want radical change.
He offered just enough reform to avoid the more radical changes demanded by the Whig opposition and radical groups.
Pitt favored rational and necessary reform and saw himself as a dedicated public servant.
Some see Pitt's reforms as a national revival, while others see them as a means to avoid greater change.
Pitt used ideas from others, prompted by the Parliamentary Accounts Committee, to bring key changes.
Parliamentary Accounts Committee
This was an influential committee of MPs that looked at government spending and income and proposed reforms.
The Financial Situation
The national debt, which had risen from £127 million in 1775, stood at £243 million in 1784, increasing by 91 percent during the war years.
Interest should be paid on government bonds in order to maintain confidence.
Pitt managed to avoid adding to the debt until 1793 when war with France broke out again.
By 1801, the debt had risen to £456 million.
The size of the debt concerned many, as those who lent benefited from high interest rates.
Concerns about corruption continued, widely believing 'debt funding' took money away from investment.
The Sinking Fund
To reduce the debt, Pitt reintroduced the sinking fund in 1786, advocated by Richard Price.
One million pounds a year was to be set aside from taxation, which special commissioners would use to buy government shares.
By 1793, the public debt had been reduced by £10 million.
In 1792, a new sinking fund was set up alongside the old one, financed by a levy on all new loans made to the state. The plan was for the debt to be paid off in 45 years.
Problems with the Sinking Fund
It dealt with only long-term debt.
Short-term debt actually increased by £7 million between 1783 and 1793.
When war broke out in 1793, government borrowing had to rise, making debt reduction more difficult.
The sinking fund continued until 1829, but during the war (1793-1815), money was being borrowed at a high rate and paid into the sinking fund, reducing the debt but not making financial sense.
The sinking fund only worked in peacetime.
Other Ways of Raising Money
Increases on indirect taxes on bachelors, hats, servants, wig powder, dice, and houses.
A tax on retail shops, introduced in 1785, caused rioting and was repealed in 1789.
Attacks on smuggling, reducing the import duty of 119 percent on tea to 25 percent, as well as reductions on tobacco and wine.
Tax policies that aimed to relate taxes to ability to pay, such as larger houses paying more tax.
The establishment of a 'consolidated fund' for customs duties.
Reducing the number of government jobs.
Higher pay for officials, reducing corruption.
A reduction in the number of sinecures.
More government contracts put out to public tender.
In 1786, money paid to the royal family was reduced.
The King's estates were more efficiently managed, and a public lottery was launched.
Pitt's Hovering Act of 1787
Extended a previous measure of 1780, giving customs officers jurisdiction to search ships 12 miles offshore.
How Successful Were Pitt's Financial Reforms?
The gap between government income and expenditure had turned into a narrow surplus by 1792, through reductions in expenditure and increases in income.
Income from taxation rose sharply from 1783 to 1800.
By 1799, the situation reached crisis point, and Pitt introduced an income tax on all incomes over £60 a year.
Pitt's tax changes ensured most wartime expenditure during the conflict with France (1793-1815) was raised from taxes.
Pitt's Virtuous Economics
Boyd Hilton used the term 'virtuous economics' to describe Pitt's financial policies, which included good housekeeping via reducing debt, fairer taxes, and reducing bribery and government posts as political rewards.
Limitations to Financial Success
Pitt's policies were not original; Walpole had used a sinking fund, and the Commission for Examining the Public Accounts had recommended reform.
The biggest financial achievements owed a lot to peace between 1783 and 1793 and to increasing trade and economic activity.
Pitt was cautious in reducing spending by cutting government jobs and often gave generous pensions to former officeholders.
He did not fully act on recommendations to sweep away corruption by a committee of enquiry in 1789.
The sinking fund was not entirely successful.
Administration
Defects of the Administration Pitt Inherited
It was small, with around 3,000 public employees.
Well-paid and senior government posts were used as political rewards.
Resources were often inefficiently deployed.
Leadership within departments was often poor, and work was fragmented.
The Reforms
Pitt reformed the system from within, appointing strong administrators to take charge of departments.
Richard Frewin instituted major reform in customs in 1787.
Sir Charles Middleton reformed the navy, against protests by Admiral Richard Howe in 1788.
Pitt built and equipped 33 major warships in his peacetime ministry after 1784 and increased the size of the navy.
As well as making new appointments, he also gradually abolished sinecures.
In 1784, Pitt tackled the independence of the East India Company with the India Act, which secured greater government involvement by establishing a Board of Control.
How Successful Were Pitt’s Administrative Reforms?
The state acquired more control, reduced bribery and corruption, increased revenue, reduced costly posts, and increased numbers in revenue collection and the navy, while also asserting control over the East India Company.
The government standards and morality of public life improved.
Limitations to Administrative Success
Much was done slowly: offices were abolished one by one when officeholders died; it was still thought appropriate to reward supporters by granting them a salaried office paid for by the state; the administration remained relatively small; patronage was not abolished until much later; proposed administrative changes in the navy were not fully implemented and its independent powers of action reduced; the East India Company continued to run India until 1858.
Pitt backed the idea of John Palmer for high-speed mail coaches but conflicted with vested interests of Anthony Todd, so Palmer was pensioned off.
Pitt's reforms remained a mix of old and new.
His idea of reforming parliament by abolishing 36 'rotten boroughs' was defeated in Parliament in 1785 because of the belief that public areas were 'private.
Pitt's contemporaries accepted a degree of public control, but did not think it strange that a private company should be the dominant influence in ruling India.
What Was the Importance of Pitt's Trade Policies?
Pitt's trade policies were one of the most innovative elements of his administration and reflected the new economic ideas of his day.
They recognised that expanding overseas trade was a priority.
A trade treaty with France, in 1786, recognised that trade could prevent costly conflicts.
The coming of war prevented Pitt from using increased trade to reduce debt.
Pitt's policies contributed to expansion and showed that the state could introduce economic policies for an expanding economy.
Overseas trade was crucial for Britain.
Trading led to the establishment of a worldwide empire.
The navy had to protect trade, and trade had to pay for British wars.
Prejudice against 'trade' lessened in British society.
Trading and banking wealth could be used to purchase landed estates and political influence.
Adam Smith's Influence
Views on trading policy were less influenced by mercantilism and promoted freer trade by Adam Smith.
Mercantilism vs. Free Trade
Mercantilism holds wealth as stable, and nations must increase their share of world trade through protection.
New ideas suggested trade should not be restricted, as greater benefits would flow if trade were freed from duties.
Pitt needed to generate wealth to reduce debt and sought an outlet for growing British products to expand industry, supported by the expansion of roads and canals and the great amount of agricultural produce.
Pitt's Trade Treaties
Pitt aimed to reduce duties on trade with America and Ireland and sought treaties with European powers.
Opposition from manufacturers in the Midlands,Lancashire and Yorkshire forced a drop in a free trade treaty with Ireland in 1785.
The most successful treaty was with France in 1786.
Eden Treaty
Pitt chose William Eden as his negotiator, signing a treaty on 26 September 1786.
Britain offered low duties on wine, and both countries reduced duties on textiles, pottery, and leather goods.
The treaty favored Britain, boosting British trade to Europe (nearly doubled, with surplus of £2 million).
The extended period of peace from 1783 to 1793 and changes in manufacturing also contributed to British success.
Burke and Paine
Edmund Burke opposed events in France.
Thomas Paine advocated rights of all citizens and the right to rebel.
What Impact Did the French Revolution Have on Britain and on Pitt's Policies?
Reactions to the Early Revolution
British reactions to the early stages of the French Revolution were mixed.
Charles James Fox saw France taking the British route to a constitutional monarchy.
Political radicals thought France was going in the direction of religious toleration and reforms which would allow people the right to participate in politics.
Pitt hoped a new French government might co-operate with Britain over trade.
By 1790, public opinion was gradually shifting. The Whig politician Edmund Burke offered the first major opposition to revolution.
Burke's defence of the British constitution and his hatred of extreme political ideas and democracy were key elements in conservative thinking.
Soon radical groups sympathetic to events in France began organising themselves.
The London Corresponding Society, founded in 1792, corresponded with groups in other towns across the country. Many of its members were skilled workers who were highly politically aware.
Whig politicians favouring parliamentary reform formed their own organisation, the Society of the Friends of the People, in 1792.
A Quick History of the French Revolution
The Origins of the French Revolution
The failure of France to pursue successful financial and administrative reform contributed to a major crisis for the monarchy by 1788 with a massive financial deficit and growing criticism of the Government.
The Events of 1789
The Paris crowds stormed the Bastille prison; the King was forced to accept that a constitution would be devised by which he would share power and the new assembly abolished feudal rights.
Radicalism and War
The revolution became more radical in 1790 and 1791 with the nationalisation of the Church and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.
More radical calls followed for the abolition of the monarchy and a continental war which would spread the revolution.
From 1793 onward, there was the Reign of Terror which involved many executions.
The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
The invasion of the Low Countries by French forces led to Britain joining a European coalition against France in 1793 in the so-called Revolutionary War.
In 1799, power was taken by Napoleon Bonaparte, who had expansionist policies for the new republic.
Thus the wars continued as the Napoleonic Wars with brief respites until the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815.
Political awareness grew among the population, as did the political gap widened between the Whigs and Pitt.
Dissenters
The name given to Protestant churchmen and women not part of the Church of England, the official church. These included Methodists, Baptists, Unitarians and Quakers.
Pitt was worried enough in late 1792 to procure a royal proclamation from George III in late 1792 against 'seditious publications and meetings'.
The execution of Louis XVI and the French advances into the Austrian Netherlands.Fears of popular unrest leading to revolution at home.
How Serious Were the Threats From Radicals and How Well Did Pitt Deal With Them?
Potential Revolutionary Factors in Britain
Clear political ideas calling for more popular power
Opposition to a corrupt political system
Growing political organizations with broad membership
Economic unrest
Elite support for revolution
Wartime strains halting reform
The Gordon Riots
In 1780, London was dominated by mobs supporting a petition protest. The danger of popular violence on the streets was real.
Political Ideas
By 1793 wide publicaitons were calling for change.
US and France offered republican models.
Mass meetings and symbols helped spread radical ideas.
Opposition to a Corrupt Political System
Opposition to a corrupt political system went back to the 1760s when the radical John Wilkes became a popular hero.
Political Organizations
Many early radical societies were inspired by the French Revolution.
The London Corresponding Society formed by the shoemaker Thomas Hardy in January 1792.
Economic considerations were also favourable for revolution.
Thomas Hardy
Hardy (1752-1832) was a Scottish shoemaker and iron worker arrested and tried for treason in 1794, but the jury would not convict him.
Economic Conditions
Nationally, bad harvests could have a considerable effect on economic discontent.
Changes to industry had introduced possible source of economic unrest with the concentration of workers in factory towns, dependent on trade and sale of goods.
Enclosure
This refers to the reorganisation of land, usually to make the holdings owned by larger landowners more efficient and profitable.
Support from the Elite
There was support from the political elite, as had happened in France.
War
For ordinary people, the war brought higher taxation as well as the impressment (forced recruitment) of men into the army and navy.
Naval Mutiny at Spithead
The grievances expressed in the mutiny were about pay and poor provisions, but there may have been some influence from France. There was also discontent about harsh punishments.
Naval Mutiny at the Nore
The mutiny developed more political tones as the men declared ‘a floating republic’.
Limitations to Revolutionary Threat (1791-1797)
The war encouraged loyalist responses in Britain.
There was a strong popular movement in support of the crown and the established Church, and the association of religious non-conformity with political radicalism also led to attacks on dissenters.
Urban craftsmen and small masters undertook the bulk of radical activity, not the countryside.
The terrorism and violence of the revolutionary general Bonaparte shocked, more than it inspired, British citizens.
The Government used propaganda to create alarm and panic about revolution.
Measures Taken By Pitt's Government
Subsiding Newspapers (1792-93)
Government supported newspapers that opposed reform.
Treasonable Practices Act (1795)
The Government passed the Gagging Acts.
Suppression of the Naval Mutinies (1798)
Seduction from Duty and Allegiance Act
Act against Administering Unlawful Oaths
Newspaper Publications Acts (1799)
Act for the More Effective Suppression of Societies Established for Seditious and Treasonable Purposes
Combination Acts preventing workers uniting for higher wages or better conditions
Assessment of Pitt's Actions
The policies of Pitt do seem to have been effective and had the support of Parliament.
The government would use spies, but these were limited.
Was Radicalism a Danger?
Changes in France might have been more important in the decline of radicalism. The French Violence grew. The French was ruled by the Directory and by Napoleon, which appeared to be more corrupt than idealistic.
Why Was the Whig Opposition Divided and How Important Was This for Pitt Remaining in Power?
Pitt was prime minister from 1783-1801 and then returned to office in 1804 until 1806.
The Whig opposition was divided.
At the start of this period, the Whigs were dominated by an influential leader Charles Watson-Wentworth and saw their duty as defending the constitutional settlement of 1688.
Some, like Fox and Rockingham's successor as leader, the Duke of Portland, refused to join the new government led by Lord Shelburne.
George III appeared to go mad in 1788 and Fox was eager for his friend, the Prince of Wales, to be declared regent immediately hopping that he would dismiss Pitt.
However, it was the French Revolution Which divided the Whigs even more.
Whig Problems
French Revolution revealed gaps between Fox and fears on popular upheaval of aristocratic Whigs.
War made Fox's opposition seem unpatriotic.