Social Psychology and Psychological Disorders

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Definition: Social psychology scientifically studies how we interact, influence, and relate to one another.
Book Definition: "The study of the causes and consequences of sociality" (p. 467).
Lens: Focus on the individual in context.
Application: Study of real-world problems.
Methodology: Empirical research conducted in laboratories or naturalistic settings; often involves manipulation of variables.

Similar DNA: Humans share significant DNA with chimpanzees, used to explain human behavior.
Chimpanzee Behavior:
- Dominance: Alpha male has right to mates.
- Territorial: Strict boundaries and violent defense of territory.
- Violence: Generally violent societies.
Comparison with Bonobos:
- Behavior: More peaceful, matriarchal societies.
- Social Interaction: Uses sexual behavior for conflict avoidance, stress reduction, and social bonding.
Conclusion: Bonobos show closer resemblance to human prosocial behaviors than chimpanzees.

Definition of Multitasking: True multitasking involves engaging two tasks simultaneously, which is only possible if at least one task is automatic, requiring no focus.
Brain Processing: Different brain networks are activated for differing types of processing tasks.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis:
- Aggression occurs when goals are blocked.
- Frustrated goals lead to feelings of anger, which can result in aggression.
- Example: Baseball pitchers more likely to hit batters when the score is higher.
Factors Influencing Aggression:
- Gender: Males responsible for 90% of murders, 80% of violent crimes in the U.S.
- Socialization: Women often engage in relational aggression (social harm).
- Testosterone: Aggression might increase testosterone levels.
- Cultural Context: Rates of aggression are often lower in collectivist cultures and higher in nations with greater income disparity.

Definition of Cooperation: Behavior between two or more individuals leading to mutual benefit.
Cultural Values: Cultures value cooperation, rewarding it and punishing violations.
In-group vs. Out-group Dynamics:
- Prejudice: Definition as evaluation of a person based solely on group membership.
- Sherif’s Robber’s Cave Study:
- Stage One: In-group formation.
- Stage Two: Competition for limited resources leads to inter-group conflict.
- Stage Three: Cooperative tasks required to resolve prejudice.

Social Loafing: Tendency to exert less effort in a group than individually.
Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations, especially in anonymous settings (like social media).

Definition: Tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to help if others are present.
Causes:
- Diffusion of Responsibility: Observers believe someone else will intervene.
- Social Evaluation: Fear of appearing foolish or assessing the situation as not an emergency.
Bystander Intervention: Best practices to reduce ambiguity and increase individual responsibility to help.

Definition: Behavior benefiting another without expecting anything in return.
Kin Selection: Evolutionary process promoting behaviors benefiting relatives.
Reciprocal Altruism: Helping another with the expectation of future reciprocal benefits.

Situational Influences:
- Proximity Principle: Closer physical proximity increases likelihood and motivation for interaction.
- Mere Exposure Effect: Tendency for liking to increase with frequency of exposure.

Physical Attraction: The strongest predictor at the beginning of relationships (matching hypothesis).
Other Influencing Factors: Body shape, height, weight, age, and cultural definitions of attractiveness.

Inner Qualities: Traits such as kindness, intelligence, and humor are strong predictors of attraction.
Homophily: Attraction to individuals with similar characteristics, enhancing self-validation.

Gender Differences: Women generally more selective in choice of partners due to reproductive costs.
Cultural Influences: Cross-cultural studies show variations in sexual behaviors and selectivity.

Social Institution: 90% of adults marry for love in the U.S., while arranged marriages have lower divorce rates globally.
Types of Love:
- Passionate Love: Intense feelings, euphoria, and sexual attraction.
- Companionate Love: Affection, trust, and concern for partner's well-being.

Definition: The process of understanding others, particularly with unexpected actions.
Types of Inference:
- Category-based Inferences: Deductions based on group membership.
- Target-based Inferences: Deductions based on specific information about an individual.

Definition: Drawing inferences about individuals based on their social category.
- Functions: Categorization and generalization (e.g., viewing males in non-traditional roles).
Consequences of Stereotyping: Impact can lead to negative biases and overgeneralizations.
Cognitive Biases: Baseline belief that skews interpretation of social situations.

Prejudice: Negative feelings based on group membership, e.g. against immigrants or differing ethnicities.
Discrimination: Unjustified negative behaviors against a group.
Elliot’s Brown/Blue Eye Study: Demonstrates inherent bias when pitting one group against another based solely on physically observable traits.

Definition: Understanding the cause of a person’s behavior.
Types of Attributions:
- Situational: Based on the context.
- Dispositional: Based on personal characteristics.
Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overuse dispositional attributions instead of situational ones, leading to potential misjudgments.
Actor-Observer Effect: Observers attribute behavior to dispositional factors while making situational attributions for themselves.

Hedonic Motive: Preference for pleasure over pain; rewarding desired behaviors.
Approval Motive: Desire for social acceptance and approval from others.
Accuracy Motive: Need to feel correct and accurate in decision-making.

Ways to Strengthen Conformity:
- Feeling insecure, group size of at least three, group admiration, lack of prior commitment.
Milgram’s Obedience Study:
- Results show significant obedience levels in participants under authority's instructions, often leading to ethical dilemmas.

Psychoanalysis: Insight into unconscious feelings; techniques include free association and transference.
Psychodynamic Therapy: Focus on balancing past events with present symptoms.
Humanistic Approach: Acknowledges potential for personal growth through empathetic understanding.
Behavioral Therapy: Utilizes classical and operant conditioning to change behavior.
Cognitive Therapy: Focuses on changing dysfunctional thoughts and cognitive distortions to alleviate symptoms of mental disorders.