Final Exam

Cardiovascular System

  • General Function:   - The cardiovascular system is responsible for circulating blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues, and removing waste products.

  • Heart Pumping Mechanism:   - The heart pumps through a series of contractions initiated by action potentials that propagate through specialized cardiac tissue.   - Conduction Pathway:     - Sinoatrial (SA) Node initiates the impulse.     - Atrioventricular (AV) Node acts as a relay station.     - Bundle of His carries impulses into the ventricles.     - Purkinje fibers distribute impulses throughout the ventricles.

  • Ion Flow:   - Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) play a crucial role in initiating contractions.   - Potassium ions (K⁺) are involved in repolarization during action potentials.   - Sodium ions (Na⁺) contribute to depolarization.

  • Hormonal and Neural Regulation of Blood Pressure:   - Hormones (like epinephrine) and neurotransmitters (like norepinephrine) can increase blood pressure by causing vasoconstriction and increasing heart rate.

  • Stent Mechanism:   - A stent is a small mesh tube that is inserted into narrowed or blocked blood vessels to keep them open.   - Other options include balloon angioplasty and bypass surgery.

  • Transport Mechanisms into the Vasculature:   - Involves diffusion, vesicular transport, and bulk flow as means to transport cells and substances through capillaries.

  • Formed Elements of Blood:   - Formed elements include erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets.

  • Formation of Blood Cells:   - Blood cells are formed through hematopoiesis occurring in the bone marrow, particularly utilizing hemocytoblasts.

  • Blood Typing:   - Blood typing determines compatibility for transfusions; A, B, AB, and O groups depend on presence or absence of antigens.   - Type O is the universal donor, and AB is the universal recipient.

Lymphatic System

  • Function:   - The lymphatic system maintains fluid balance, absorbs dietary fats, and is involved in immune functions.

  • Comparison with Cardiovascular System:   - Similarity: Both transport fluids and play critical roles in immune and circulatory functions.   - Uniqueness: Lymphatic system is unidirectional and lacks a central pump (heart).

  • Innate Immunity:   - The first line of defense against pathogens that includes barriers like skin and mucous membranes.

  • Adaptive Immunity:   - A specific immune response that develops over time involving lymphocytes (B and T cells).

  • Immune Defense Lines:   - First Line: Skin, mucous membranes, secretions.   - Second Line: Phagocytic cells, inflammation, fever.   - Third Line: Adaptive response involving lymphocytes.

  • Humoral Immunity:   - Involves B cells and the production of antibodies that circulate in the bloodstream.

  • Cellular Immunity:   - Involves T cells that directly attack infected cells or help other immune cells.

Respiratory System

  • Respiration Definition:   - The process of gas exchange, taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide.

  • Anatomical Structures:   - Includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs.

  • Four Steps of Respiration:   1. Pulmonary Ventilation: Breathing air in and out.   2. External Respiration: Gas exchange between lungs and blood.   3. Transport of Gases: Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.   4. Internal Respiration: Gas exchange between blood and tissues.

  • Pressure of Breathing:   - Changes in thoracic cavity volume during inhalation and exhalation influence pressure differential.

  • Respiratory Volumes:   - Tidal Volume (TV): Volume of air inhaled or exhaled per breath.   - Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Additional air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.   - Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Additional air that can be exhaled after a normal expiration.   - Residual Volume (RV): Air remaining in the lungs after maximum expiration.

Digestive System

  • Digestion Process:   - Breakdown of food via mechanical and chemical processes, starting in the mouth and continuing through the gastrointestinal tract.

  • Source of Acid:   - Hydrochloric acid (HCl) produced by parietal cells in the stomach is crucial for digestion.

  • Bile and Pancreatic Juice Delivery Ducts:   - Bile flows from the liver through hepatic ducts, while pancreatic juice is secreted into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct.

  • Gastric Secretions:   - Produced by gastric mucosal cells including parietal cells, chief cells, and G-cells.

Urinary System

  • Kidneys and Homeostasis:   - Regulate water, electrolytes, and acid-base balance.   - Filter blood to produce urine, which removes wastes while retaining necessary substances.

  • Urine Formation:   - Involves filtration, reabsorption, and secretion processes in the nephron.

  • Angiotensins I & II:   - Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor and stimulates aldosterone release, increasing blood pressure.

  • Role of Bicarbonate (HCO3-):   - Maintains pH balance in blood and urine, helping neutralize excess acids.

  • Specialized Kidney Cells:   - Includes juxtaglomerular cells (release renin), and nephron cells (facilitate filtration/reabsorption).

  • Osmolarity and Fluid Movement:   - Osmolarity influences fluid shifts between compartments by osmotic gradients; fluid moves toward areas of higher solute concentration.

  • Fluid Comparison:   - Intracellular fluid (ICF) different in composition and volume from extracellular fluid (ECF), which includes plasma and interstitial fluid.

Reproductive System

  • Comparative Analysis of Systems:   - Similarities in structure and basic functions, including gamete production and hormonal regulations.

  • Mitosis vs. Meiosis:   - Mitosis involves one division yielding two identical cells (diploid).   - Meiosis involves two divisions producing four genetically diverse cells (haploid).

  • Oogenesis Process:   - The formation of oocytes in ovaries, involving stages from primary follicles to mature eggs.

  • Spermatogenesis Process:   - Development of sperm cells within the testes, involving several stages of maturation.

  • Human Development Stages:   - Development from zygote to embryo to fetus involves organization of layers and systems.

  • Genetic Transmission:   - Genes passed from parents include dominant and recessive traits, expressed through genotype and phenotype interactions.