Garison 4.2 and 4.4

Exploration: Causes and Events from 1450 to 1750

Topic 4.2 & 4.4 Overview

  • Learning Objectives:

    • 4.2: Describe the role of states in the expansion of maritime exploration from 1450 to 1750.

    • 4.2C: Explain the economic causes and effects of maritime exploration by various European states.

    • 4.4:

    • 4.4E: Explain the process of state building and expansion among various empires and states from 1450 to 1750.

    • 4.4F: Explain the continuities and changes in economic systems and labor systems from 1450 to 1750.

    • 4.4G: Explain changes and continuities in the system of slavery from 1450 to 1750.

Historical Context (1200-1450)

  • The time period witnessed increased commerce and connections across Eurasia but lacked connections to the Western Hemisphere (Americas).

  • Columbus’ voyages in 1492 heralded the beginning of a “modern” age characterized by:

    • Global economy

    • Global empires

    • Global cultural exchanges

    • Global conflicts

  • Following this age, industrialization and political revolutions ensue.

Inquiry Discussion

  • Prompt: Why did Europeans discover the New World rather than East Asians, Indians, or Muslims?

  • Key Points:

    • Geographic advantage of Europe in relation to the Atlantic Ocean.

    • Increased competition among European states promoting innovation and exploration.

    • Adoption of navigation and ship design ideas from China, India, and Dar al-Islam.

    • Accessibility to new colonies further fueled exploration funding.

    • Desire for access to Indian Ocean trade routes, which were already controlled by Muslims, Chinese, and Indians.

Focus on the Ottoman Empire

  • Implication: Access to Indian Ocean trade and China was obstructed by the Ottoman Empire.

Maritime Exploration Motivation (1450-1750)

Exploration Causes

  • Key motivations for European maritime exploration:

    • Competition: Rivalries among European states and threats posed by the Ottoman Empire.

    • Merchant Class Growth: An expanding merchant class sought to increase wealth and trade (especially through Italian City-States).

    • Desire for Indian Ocean Access: Aim to bypass Muslim intermediaries in trade.

    • Missionary Zeal: A push to spread Catholic Christianity, associated with figures like Catholic Jesuits amid the Protestant Reformation.

    • Summarized broadly as the “Three G’s”: God, Glory, Gold

    • Note: The application of “3 G’s” requires detailed specificity beyond the mere words.

Detailed Motivations

  • Motive 1: God

    • Christianity sought to be a universalizing religion, fostering expansion desires among Europeans to spread Catholicism.

  • Motive 2: Gold

    • Wealth fueled European expansion endeavors; mercantilism encouraged merchants and officials to discover precious metals and expand Eastern trade, particularly in spices.

  • Motive 3: Glory

    • Adventurism and fame motivated many, exemplified by Spanish conquistadors like Hernan Cortes (Aztecs) and Francisco Pizarro (Inca).

Economic Systems and Labor Markets

Mercantilism

  • Definition: A system where countries competed for overseas components with the goal to accumulate material wealth and create favorable trade balances.

  • Operated by colonies sending raw materials back to the mother country, which then exported manufactured goods to other markets.

  • Resulted in the creation of joint-stock companies representing a pivotal shift in the trade routes and economic systems of Europe.

Notes on Economic Developments

  • Mercantilism resulted in a “commercial revolution” creating interconnected trade across Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

    • Notably, New wealth from colonies prompted growth in overseas trade, especially during the 16th and 17th centuries, leading to a profound transformation in Europe's economic landscape.

Portuguese Exploration and Maritime Empire

  • Early Exploration Factor:

    • The Portuguese maritime empire began in the 15th century, led by Prince Henry the Navigator with state-sponsored navigation studies.

    • Introduction of navigation technology via Jewish cartographers, leading to advances such as the magnetic compass, astrolabe, and improved ship designs like the caravel, essential for coastal exploration.

    • The caravel was specifically designed smaller than existing vessels yet robust enough to withstand storms with two sail types for speed and maneuverability.

Portuguese Entry into Indian Ocean Trade

  • Motivations for Portuguese ventures into Indian Ocean trade included the desire to circumvent established Muslim intermediaries and directly access trade routes for luxury goods.

  • Noteworthy voyages:

    • 1488: Bartolomeu Dias sailed around the Cape of Good Hope, entering the Indian Ocean.

    • 1497: Vasco da Gama followed, making critical advancements in trade navigation, reaching India by 1498.

The Spanish Empire

  • Christopher Columbus sought a westward route to Asia and was sponsored by Spain (Ferdinand and Isabella), departing in 1492.

  • His voyages led to Spanish explorations, conquering vast empires in the Americas, despite initially returning without the anticipated riches.

  • Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the New World claims between Spain and Portugal, influencing future explorations and territorial control.

Conquistadors and Indigenous Empires

  • Spanish efforts led to significant conquests:

    • Aztec Empire: Hernan Cortes conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521, employing superior weaponry, smallpox, and indigenous alliances.

    • Inca Empire: Francisco Pizarro succeeded in 1535, similarly capitalizing on disease and warfare technologies.

Labor Systems Under Spanish Rule in the Americas

  1. Encomienda System: A harsh system aimed at rewarding Spanish colonists with the labor of indigenous peoples, resulting in severe exploitation.

  2. Mit’a System: Originally an Inca labor tax, adapted for Spanish use to exploit labor in silver mining for European markets, indicative of colonial attitudes toward indigenous populations.

Impact of Silver Mining

  • Potosí Mines: Represented a key source of economic transformation, introducing merciless labor conditions leading to widespread fatalities among workers.

Conclusion of Maritime Expansion Trends

  • European Empires: Spain and Portugal led maritime exploration, inspiring other powers like France and Britain, which subsequently established their own trading posts and colonial territories using the models pioneered by the Iberian nations.

  • Joint-Stock Companies: Emerged as critical players in international trade, allowing European nations to share risks in ventures while fueling competition and expansion across the globe.

  • Transition Beyond 1750: This period set foundations for capitalism, colonization patterns, and the complex interrelationships between labor, economy, and state power in subsequent centuries.