Science in Practice – Science & Society (Exam Review Notes)

Definition of Science

• Latin "scientia" = knowledge; term “science/scientist” only widespread since $19^{th}$ century
• Two meanings:
– Method: systematic observation, experimentation, falsification
– Product: body of verified knowledge

Scientific Method & Theory

• Observation → “Why is it so?”
• Hypothesis: provisional, falsifiable answer
• Test/Revise: design experiments → compare prediction vs. result; peer review
• Theory: hypothesis repeatedly confirmed, consistent with other accepted theories; always open to revision

Characteristics of Robust Theories

• Require time & cumulative evidence
• Build on / refine earlier theories
• Must apply the scientific method
• Interlock with other theories
• Collective enterprise (team effort)

Breadth & Hierarchy of Modern Science

• Formal → Physical → Life → Social sciences form nested levels of explanation
• Scale spans from sub-atomic ($10^{-15}\,m$) to cosmic ($10^{27}\,m$)
• Mathematics underpins all; each level adds complexity (e.g.
Physics → Chemistry → Biology → Psychology → Sociology)

Society – Key Concept

• Society = network of organised human relationships generating culture, institutions, identity & security

Science’s Impact on Basic Human Needs

• Survival: clean water, food technology, vaccines, antibiotics, sanitation
• Reproduction:
– Maternal mortality: $\sim1\%$ historically → $0.012\%$ (developed) / $0.24\%$ (developing)
– Contraception lowers unwanted pregnancies & population growth rate
– Assisted reproduction (e.g.
IVF) enables fertility where impossible before
• Other domains: sport performance, communication & entertainment, warfare tech, forensic law, automated economics

Robotics & Ethics (Asimov)

• 1st Law: no harm to humans
• 2nd Law: obey humans unless conflicts with 1st
• 3rd Law: self-preservation unless conflicts with 1st/2nd
• Zeroth Law (later): no harm to humanity as a whole

Scientific Literacy

• Australia 2013 survey:
– $41\%$ unaware Earth’s orbit = $1$ year
– $27\%$ think humans & dinosaurs co-existed
– $30\%$ think evolution stopped / unreal
• Key skills needed: critical thinking, scepticism, capacity to learn science, not memorising every fact
• Societal risk: technology-dependent culture with limited public understanding

Key Quotes for Reflection

• “Science gathers knowledge faster than society gathers wisdom.” – Isaac Asimov
• “We live in a society exquisitely dependent on science and technology, in which hardly anyone knows anything about them.” – Carl Sagan
• “If you can’t explain it simply, you don’t understand it well enough.” – Albert Einstein