History Notes

History Notes

Ottoman Empire

Early Expansion: By the fourth century CE, the Roman Empire was divided into two.

- Western Roman Empire the main language was Latin. The head of the Catholic Church, the Pope, was based in Rome.

- Eastern Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire, the main language was Greek and the church was Orthodox, with its head, the Patriarch, based in Constantinople. Each claimed the leadership of the Christians. The dominance of the Byzantine and Persian empires began to weaken after 1000 CE as a result of the growing military power of the Seljuk Turks, the rise of Islam, the impact of the Crusades and the increasing commercial power of Venice. The Seljuk Turks were nomadic herdsmen from central Asia The Ottoman Empire is named as such because of the first ruler. Osman I. His name is written as Uthman, and the term "Ottoman" is derived from the Arabic pronunciation of his name. Involvement with Trade: The Ottomans were in a position to take part in the major trading routes: between Europe and China by the Silk Road, from India by land and sea, and from Africa along the pilgrimage routes to Mecca. When they captured Constantinople, their position became even stronger. Profits from trade brought the money to wage wars, but it also brought ideas and technology, such as the use of the cannon. Their conquests were funded with the money they received from trading making it the most important part of their success as an empire. Fall of Constantinople: Defense of Constantinople: - Constantinople had thick, high walls that protected it from land attacks. - The city was surrounded by water on three sides, making it hard to attack from the sea. - A chain blocked enemy ships from entering the Golden Horn. - The city had a large army and elite soldiers. Mehmed II’s Conquest: - Mehmed II brought a huge army (80,000-100,000 soldiers) and laid siege to the city. - He used huge cannons to break down the walls over time. - Mehmed’s fleet blocked the sea, cutting off supplies to the city. - Mehmed’s forces dug tunnels and used siege towers to attack. Suleiman the Magnificent: Military Success: Suleiman expanded the empire, conquering parts of Europe (like Hungary) and making the Ottomans a powerful force in the Mediterranean. He also tried to capture Vienna in 1529, but the siege failed. Legal Reforms: Suleiman is known as "The Lawgiver" because he made many important changes to the empire’s laws, combining Islamic law with new rules to make the system fairer and more organized. Cultural Growth: The arts, literature, and architecture flourished during his reign. The Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul is one of his most famous architectural projects. He was also a poet and supported artists and scholars. Diplomacy: Suleiman formed alliances with countries like France and maintained peace with religious minorities, allowing them to practice their faiths. Personal Life: His wife, Hürrem Sultan (Roxelana), became very influential in the court. His sons fought for the throne after his death, with Selim II eventually becoming Sultan. Legacy: Suleiman's reign is remembered as a golden age for the Ottoman Empire, and he is still considered one of the greatest rulers in history. Suleiman gained the loyalty of newly acquired territories by respecting their local customs, religious practices, and laws, integrating them into the Ottoman Empire. This is the Millet System. Life in the Ottoman Empire: Millet System: The Millet System was a way the Ottoman Empire managed different religious groups within its empire. The main groups were: Orthodox Christians Jews Armenians Leaders of Each Millet: Each group had a religious leader who made decisions for the group. - Each millet could follow its own religious rules for things like marriage, education, and family matters, instead of using the Ottoman government’s laws. - Taxation: The leaders of each millet collected taxes from their people and gave a part of it to the Ottoman government. As long as they paid taxes they would be allowed to govern themselves as they willed. - Separate Courts: Each millet had its own court system based on religious laws, like Christian laws or Jewish laws. - Peaceful Coexistence: The system allowed people of different religions to live together and follow their beliefs, while still being part of the Ottoman Empire. Occupations: - Peasants would all be involved in agriculture. Some women would also be involved in making textiles. - Men in towns would be merchants, government officials or soldiers. - Women in the cities could be involved in trade by appointing a male agent to act on their behalf. - Children were employed as early as possible. This could be on a farm, in textile production or as an apprentice to a craft or trade - Men would congregate in coffee shops. Women in markets. Literature & Art: There were three main languages used in Ottoman Literature. This was Turkish, Arabic and Persian. Turkish, written in Arabic script, was the language used in day-to-day settings such as markets and local courts. Arabic was the language for studying the Qur’an and other religious purposes. Persian was the language of government and administration. Japan Under the Shogun: Geographical Features of Japan: - Located in East-Asia Japan is an archipelago, or string of islands, on the eastern edge of Asia. - There are four main islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. - Honshu is the largest and most populated of Japan's four main islands. It is home to major cities like Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, and Hiroshima, and contains the majority of Japan's population and economic activity. - It is predominantly mountainous. Japan's closest neighbors are Korea, Russia and China. Japanese Social, Cultural and Economic Features Under Shoguns Economic: Agriculture: Rice was the main crop and was used as currency and a symbol of wealth. Land was the main source of power. Trade: Internal trade between cities and regions grew, leading to the development of new towns, markets, and businesses. Merchant Class: Over time, merchants became wealthier and more influential, although they were still considered low in the social hierarchy. Currency and Taxes: The economy was based largely on land and rice, but coinage was introduced to facilitate trade. Farmers paid taxes on rice, which was collected by the samurai or daimyos. Cultural: Bushido Code: The code of conduct for samurai, emphasizing loyalty, honor, and bravery. Samurai were expected to live by these rules and were seen as protectors of society. Japanese Religion: Shinto: The basic beliefs of Shinto and the ways they are put into practice are as follows: • Tradition and the family. Birth, marriage and other ceremonies related to family life are especially significant. • Love of nature. Being in contact with nature means being in contact with the gods. • Shintoism is a polytheistic religion, meaning it involves the belief in many gods or kami, which are spirits or deities associated with natural elements, objects, or ancestors. • Physical cleanliness. Taking baths, washing the hands often and rinsing out the mouth are part of daily life Buddhism: - Buddhism came to Japan from Korea and China in the sixth century and was soon adopted by the ruling families. - The Japanese adopted new Chinese forms of Buddhism that still have many followers today. Known as Zen Buddhism. - Zen stressed self-discipline through meditation. - Zen Buddhism also shared with Shinto a respect for the natural world Political Features: The Shogun: - The Shogun was started by a man named Minamoto Yoritomo. - A shogun was the military leader of Japan. The shogun had the most power, even though the emperor was still the official ruler. - The shogun controlled the army and made important decisions for the country. - A shogunate was the government run by the shogun. The system was military-based, and shoguns ruled Japan in place of the emperor. - The emperor was the symbolic ruler, but the shogun had real power over the country. - Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868) was the most famous and longest-lasting shogunate, started by Tokugawa Ieyasu. Social Features: Caste System/Feudalism: The Emperor: The power of the emperor was just symbolic — he held his position only because of the support of the shogun. He did not hold any real power. The Daimyo: Daimyo were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who ruled most of Japan from their vast hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and nominally to the emperor. The Warrior Class: Members of the warrior class. They were loyal to the shogun and daimyos in whose classes they resided. Their position gave them fairly high social status, but little political power. They believed in Bushido. Bushido is a code of conduct. The code believed that you must die in defense of the Emperor Peasants were just below warriors in the social system. They were considered important because they produced the food that was essential to life. The Craftspeople: Farmers bought a range of items such as wooden barrels for storage, metal tools, pottery and fine woven cloth from craftspeople in the castle towns. Other artisans in the towns made paper, beautiful furniture or magnificent swords for samurai. The Merchants: Merchants were considered the lowest of the four classes because they did not produce food like the peasants or useful items like the craftspeople. The Outcasts: Two social groups were considered to be completely outside the class system. the eta (meaning ‘great filth’), who were involved in such activities as leather work, burials or butchering animals the hinin (meaning ‘non-persons’), who were involved in activities such as acting and scavenging Samurai & The Daimyo: - The Daimyos were powerful lords who ruled over lands and gave Samurai land and rewards in return for military service. - The Samurai served the Daimyo with loyalty and bravery, following the Bushido code. - The Daimyo needed the Samurai for protection and power, while the Samurai needed the Daimyo for status and income. Spanish Conquest: Aztecs: - was a powerful empire in central Mexico - Had impressive cities, religion, and achievements in agriculture, medicine, and astronomy. - Ruled by an emperor, practiced human sacrifice - Had a rich trade economy. - Empire fell in 1521 after the Spanish arrived and conquered them. Belief System of Aztecs: - The Aztec religion was polytheistic, meaning they believed in and worshiped many gods. - Associated with various aspects of life, such as the sun, rain, war, and fertility. - The Aztecs believed that the gods had control over the forces of nature, and in return for their blessings, the gods required offerings, especially human sacrifices. - The Aztecs believed that human sacrifice was necessary to honor the gods and ensure the continuation of life. - They believed the gods had sacrificed themselves to create and sustain the world, and in return, humans had to offer sacrifices to maintain balance and prevent the destruction of the world. The Conquistadors - Spanish for Conquestors - The conquistadors had ships, guns, and horses, giving them a technological advantage over native peoples. - They believed European civilization was superior to the cultures they encountered in the New World. - Their worldview was shaped by history, the Bible, and war. - They were on a mission to spread Catholicism and convert indigenous people to Christianity. - The conquistadors also sought to bring the riches of gold, silver, and spices back to Spain, seeing it as their Christian duty. Hernan Cortez: - Hernán Cortés (c. 1485-1547) is famous for conquering the Aztecs and claimed Mexico for Spain. - In 1519, Cortés was ordered to command an expedition to the Americas, but his superior Velázquez canceled the mission. - Cortés ignored the order and set sail for Mexico, aiming to overthrow the Aztec ruler Montezuma II in the city of Tenochtitlán. - The Aztecs initially drove Cortés and his forces out of Tenochtitlán, but Cortés returned in 1521, defeated the Aztecs, and took control of the city. Hernan Cortez and Montezuma Meet: - When the Aztecs first saw Cortés and the Spanish, they thought they might be divine figures due to prophecies about gods coming from the east. - Montezuma, the Aztec emperor, greeted them with gifts, thinking that this might be a sign of fate or a test from the gods. - The Aztecs were amazed by the Spanish appearance, weapons, and horses, believing they had supernatural powers. The Conquest of the Aztec Empire: - Cortes had a number of advantages over the Aztecs: • Division within the Aztec empire. • Superior weaponry. • Moctezuma’s slow response to the threat of Spanish invasion. • The Aztecs’ lack of preparedness for war. • Aztec superstition and religious belief. Siege of Tenochtitlan: - The Spanish feared for their safety during an Aztec religious parade and launched an attack. - The Spanish closed the escape routes and attacked the people celebrating in the Aztec temple. - Nearly all of the Aztecs inside the temple were killed. - The Aztecs claimed that Moctezuma II died from injuries inflicted by the Spanish, while the Spanish stated that Moctezuma was stoned to death by his own people. - Before leaving the city, the Spanish looted the Aztecs, taking gold as they filled their pockets. - In 1521, Cortes returned to Tenochtitlan for his final attack on the Aztecs. - While Cortés was rebuilding his army and gathering supplies, the Aztecs were devastated by a smallpox epidemic. - For three months, Cortés' forces laid siege to the city by: ● Cutting off the Aztecs' water supply. ● Blocking the causeway to the mainland. ● Blockading the canals. - Despite fierce Aztec resistance, hunger and disease led to the Aztec surrender on 13 August 1521. La Malinche: - La Malinche, also known as Malintzin or Doña Marina, was a Nahua woman from the region that would later become Mexico. - She was taken as a slave after Hernan Cortez defeated the Mayans near Tabasco. - Hernan noticed she could speak multiple languages and decided she would become his interpreter. - She played a key role as an interpreter, advisor, and lover to Hernán Cortés during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. - La Malinche was initially given as a slave to the Spanish by the Aztecs and later became one of Cortés' trusted allies. - She knew several languages, including Nahuatl (the Aztec language) and Mayan, which made her a valuable asset for Cortés in negotiations and communication with native groups. - Her ability to interpret for Cortés and help form alliances with indigenous groups was instrumental in the Spanish defeat of the Aztecs. - La Malinche is a controversial figure in Mexican history, seen by some as a traitor who helped the Spanish conquer her people, and by others as a victim who was forced into her role and used her intelligence to survive and navigate the complex political situation. Spanish Colonial Control: - The Spanish justified their control over the Inca and Aztec empires by arguing that, as Christians, they had a duty to civilize the people of the New World. - The Europeans referred to all Native Americans as Indians, believing they needed to be brought into European cultural and religious norms. - The Spanish argued that Indian civilizations would be improved by contact with Spanish colonists, where they would learn: ● Christianity (religious practices). ● Reading and writing. - The Spanish replaced the Aztec and Incan empires with Spanish religion, language, and culture, imposing their ways of life on the indigenous populations. The Spanish established two key systems of imperial government over their empire: Encomienda System: - Encomenderos (Spanish settlers) were granted native land and labour in exchange for protection and providing a Catholic education to the indigenous people. - This system allowed the Spanish to exploit native labour while supposedly offering protection and religious instruction. Hacienda System: - Members of the Spanish aristocracy were sent to the Americas to govern and spread Catholicism. - In return, they were granted huge land estates (haciendas) and given authority over the land and the people who lived on it. Both systems were used to consolidate Spanish control, exploit indigenous labour, and spread Christianity across the New World. - The encomienda and hacienda systems significantly disrupted and destroyed the independence of native communities by: ● Profiting from Cheap Labour: Spanish priests and soldiers took advantage of the systems to exploit native labour for their own profit. ● Taxation of Native Americans: Native people were forced to pay a tax to the Spanish, often in the form of tribute or labour. ● Tribute Determination: The encomendero (Spanish landholder) had the power to decide how much tribute (payment or labour) the natives had to provide, which led to exploitation. ● Disrupting Community Structure: The systems broke up traditional native communities, forcing people into Spanish-controlled agricultural estates and undermining their social and cultural structures. Disease & Defeat: - Axes and wooden helmets of the Incas were no match for the Spaniards’ weapons made of iron and steel, and their gunpowder - Lack of Immunity: Indigenous people had no natural immunity to the diseases brought by the Spanish conquistadors from Europe. - Introduction of Smallpox: The Spanish conquest of Mexico introduced smallpox to the Americas, which spread rapidly among the native populations. - Massive Population Decline: The indigenous population of Central and South America fell by 25 million in the first 50 years of Spanish contact, largely due to diseases. - Other Western Diseases: Diseases like measles, typhus, and influenza also devastated native populations, causing the death of 90% of the Inca people. - Belief in Punishment: Native people were taught to believe that illnesses were a punishment from the gods for their actions. - Missionary Reinforcement: Spanish missionaries encouraged this belief, preaching that disease was a reminder that only Christianity was the true religion, and conversion was the only way to survive and gain salvation. - European Immunity: Europeans appeared to be immune to the diseases that devastated the indigenous populations, which led to further confusion and fear among the natives.