History Exam notes

The Prague Spring 1968;

Backround

By the late 1960s, the difference in living standards between the communist East and the capitalist West was getting harder to hide. People behind the Iron Curtain became increasingly frustrated by the lack of freedom and low standard of living. In Czechoslovakia in 1968, the new leader responded to these feelings. Alexander Dubcek, and the 'Prague Spring', would challenge Soviet dominance in a way not seen since Hungary in 1956. What was Czechoslovakia like before 1968? What exactly was the Prague Spring?

Life in Czechoslovakia

As with the other countries behind the Iron Curtain, Czechoslovakian society was tightly controlled. It was a one-party communist state that answered to Moscow as a member of the Warsaw Pact. The government controlled the press and opposition was not tolerated. There were very few opportunities to see what life was like outside the communist bloc but by the middle of the 1960s, with economic problems mounting in the country, calls for change were increasing. The country's leader, Antonín Novotny, was known to be particularly corrupt even among other senior party officials; communist leaders in Moscow were well aware that such a discredited figure could damage the image and power of the party.

Calls for reform

In the mid-1960s, a respected Czech economist named Ota Sik called for economic reform. He recommended:

• less central control of the economy and the lifting of the ban on private business

• rights for consumers

• more power for ordinary workers

• the government should be more ready to listen to people's concerns.

The USSR rejected the suggestions outright. In 1966, Sik called for full political reform, believing that it was the only way to improve the economy. His ideas quickly grew in popularity and Moscow realised that some change would be needed to avoid a revolt.

‘Socialism with a human face’

In January 1968, Novotný was forced to resign by the Sovietgovernment. He was replaced by Alexander Dubcek, another senior Communist Party official. The Soviets believed that Dubcek would manage the situation and calm the calls for change. However, Dubcek immediately set about introducing the political reforms, taking the Soviets completely by surprise. Declaring a 'new start to socialism' and 'socialism with a human face', the new leader:

• removed state controls on industry, allowing Czechs to run their own businesses

• allowed public meetings and freedom of speech

• ended press censorship

• gave Czechs the right to visit non-communist countries.

The Communist Party would retain its power but other organisations, such as trade unions, would be allowed to form. Dubcek pledged total loyalty to the Warsaw Pact and promised that communism would remain in Czechoslovakia, but Moscow was becoming increasingly uneasy about the reforms. Despite its concerns, the USSR did not stop the reforms and Dubcek introduced ever more radical changes in what became known as the 'Prague Spring movement'.

Alexander Dubcek (1921 - 1992)

• Although he was born in Czechoslovakia, Dubcek moved with his parents to the Soviet Union and he spent most of his childhood there. He returned to his home country during the Second World War to fight against the Nazis.

• He remained in Czechoslovakia after the war and rose through the ranks of the Communist Party.

• He became the leader of Czechoslovakia in 1968.

• He was forced from power in 1969 and expelled from the Communist Party in 1970. He spent the next 18 years working as a clerk in a wood-processing yard.

• After the collapse of the Soviet Union, he returned to politics and became celebrated as a national hero, although he never reached the level of prominence he had held in 1968.

• He was killed in a car crash in 1992.

Questions

Briefly explain what life was like in czechoslovakia before 1968

Before 1968, life in Czechoslovakia was very controlled by the government, which was a one-party communist state under Soviet influence. People could not freely express their opinions, and the press was heavily censored. Many were frustrated with low living standards and a lack of freedom. The leader at the time, Antonín Novotný, was seen as corrupt, and there was little knowledge of life outside the communist system. This led to growing calls for change, setting the stage for the Prague Spring in 1968.

Why do you think that the USSR could not accept Ota Sik’s suggestions?

The USSR could not accept Ota Sik's suggestions because they went against the main ideas of their communist system, which focused on strong government control of the economy. Sik wanted less control, more private businesses, and more rights for consumers, which worried Soviet leaders. They feared that allowing these changes might inspire other countries to ask for reform too, which could lead to problems and challenges to their power.

Imagine you are an advisor to Brezhnev, the new Soviet leader. What advice would you give him about how to deal with the situation in Czechoslovakia? What could be the consequences of intervening? What could be the consequences of allowing the reforms to continue?

As an advisor to Brezhnev, I would suggest being cautious about the situation in Czechoslovakia. It’s important to keep Soviet influence strong but also negotiate with their leader, Dubcek, to limit the changes while ensuring they stay loyal to communism.

Consequences of intervening:

Military Action: This could cause violence and anger against the USSR, leading to more problems in other countries.

Bad Reputation: It might make the USSR look harsh and controlling on the world stage.

Consequences of allowing reforms:

More Changes: Other countries might want similar reforms, which could lead to less control over them.

Loss of Power: The USSR might lose its hold in Eastern Europe if Czechoslovakia becomes a model for reform.

How did the Soviets respond to the Prague Spring?

The Prague Spring represented the biggest challenge to Soviet control of Eastern Europe since the Hungarian Uprising in 1956 (see pages 52-55). Just as Hungary had been one of Khrushchev's first tests, Prague would be one of the first challenges of Brezhnev's rule. How did the Soviets respond to the Prague Spring? Could they ever accept Dubcek's reforms?

The Challenge for Breznehv

The Soviets had hoped that the appointment of Dubcek would end calls for reform in Czechoslovakia. However, it had the opposite effect. Dubcek had introduced wide-ranging reforms but had committed to remaining part of the Warsaw Pact. The challenge for the new Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev, was to try to maintain Moscow's influence without making the situation worse.

Other Warsaw Pact leaders, particularly in East Germany and Hungary, were very concerned by the developments in Czechoslovakia, fearing that unrest would spread to their own countries. In Poland, student protesters were calling for their own Dubcek. Initially, Brezhnev resisted intervening. He felt that as long as communism remained in power in the country and Dubiek remained committed to the Warsaw Pact, the situation could be managed. However, Dubiek was gaining support from elsewhere, including the independent communist country of Yugoslavia and, of greater concern, from Romania, a Warsaw Pact member. Brezhnev did not intend to let the situation escalate as it had in Hungary and risk the break-up of the communist bloc.

Increasing Pressure

The fact that Moscow seemed to accept the reforms encouraged Dubiek to go further. He announced plans to open borders with Western countries and to remove all remaining censorship of the press. This was too much for the rest of the other members of the WarsawPact and they began to show their displeasure.

In June 1968, the Czech border was chosen as the location for Warsaw Pact military exercises by Soviet, Polish and East German troops. This was designed to intimidate Dubiek's government. In July, the Warsaw Pact met without Czechoslovakia to discuss the situation. After the meeting, they issued the 'Warsaw Letter' to the Czech government. The letter acknowledged that each country had a right to self-determination but also warned that a challenge to the communist system in one country risked damaging the system as a whole. Brezhnev held a series of meetings with Dubiek in the hope of convincing him to reverse the reforms but the Czechoslovakian leader did not listen. Unable to solve the crisis diplomatically, Brezhnev and the countries of the Warsaw Pact turned to force.

The Soveit Invasion

On 20 August 1968, Soviet forces entered Czechoslovakia and quickly seized control of Prague. Although there was some civilian resistance, Dubcek ordered the army not to fight back. People who resisted the invaders were dealt with brutally; Dubcek knew that they stood no chance and would be slaughtered.

The official Soviet line was that they were responding to a request from the Communist Party to restore order. However, in a final act of defiance, Czech radio stations broadcast reports of the invasion to the world, describing it as a violation of socialist principles and international law. Dubcek was arrested and forced to reverse the reforms. A hundred protesters were killed and 500 were wounded.

The Prague Spring was over. A new hard-line government, loyal to Moscow and Soviet-style communism, was established in 1969 and Dubiek was expelled from the party. Unlike Nagy after the Hungarian Uprising, however, he was not put on trial or executed and he returned to politics after the eventual fall of the Soviet Union 20 years later.

Questions

Why were other Warsaw pact leaders concerned about developments in Prague in1968?

Other Warsaw Pact leaders were worried about what was happening in Prague in 1968 because the changes in Czechoslovakia—more freedom and less government control—could spread to their countries. They feared it would weaken Soviet power and the strict communist system they all followed.

Why do you think Brezhnev was initially resistant to the use of force?

Brezhnev was initially against using force because he knew it could cause big problems for the Soviet Union and make them look bad. He also worried it might inspire unrest in other countries. But when the changes in Czechoslovakia became too extreme, he decided force was needed to keep control.

Explain why Dubcek ordered the army not to resist?

Dubček ordered the army not to resist the Soviet invasion in 1968 because he hoped to avoid violence and minimize bloodshed. He believed that resisting the Soviet forces would lead to a larger, destructive conflict. His goal was to try to find a peaceful solution, even though he knew it meant losing control over the reforms he had introduced.

Write an account of how the Prague Spring became an international crisis during 1968.

The Prague Spring of 1968 became an international crisis when Czechoslovak leader Alexander Dubček introduced reforms to create a more open form of socialism, allowing more freedom of speech, press, and travel. The Soviet Union, led by Leonid Brezhnev, feared these changes would weaken Soviet control over Eastern Europe and inspire similar movements in other countries. In response, the USSR and Warsaw Pact nations invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968, sending over 200,000 troops to end the reforms.

The invasion sparked outrage worldwide, especially in Western countries, which saw it as an attack on Czechoslovakia’s sovereignty. Despite global protests, the Soviet Union was determined to maintain its control. The invasion ended the Prague Spring, removed Dubček from power, and showed that the USSR would use force to prevent any challenge to its authority in Eastern Europe.

How did events in Czechoslovakia affect East-West relations?

The events in Czechoslovakia in 1968 once again proved how determined the Soviet Union was to deal with opposition to its control over Eastern Europe. What was the reaction within the communist world? How did the Western world respond? Did the events of 1968 represent the start of a new phase in the Cold War?

The Communist response

Communists around the world were outraged by the Soviet action in Czechoslovakia. The biggest backlash came from communists in Western, non-communist countries, particularly in Europe, who saw the Soviet action as a betrayal of communist values and an act of imperialism. There were also protests in China and Yugoslavia - communist countries that were not part of the USSR's sphere of influence. Relations with China in particular were damaged. Most surprisingly there was a small protest in Red Square in the centre of Moscow, although this was short lived. However, the most dangerous threat facing Soviet leaders was posed by the Red Army who had carried out the invasion. The soldiers had been told that their actions had been requested by the Czechoslovakian people.

When they arrived and discovered this to be a lie many were angry. There was no mutiny, but little could be done about the soldiers returning home and telling people what they had seen and how they had been manipulated. For many people across Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, the events in Czechoslovakia had shown that their governments were not revolutionaries or committed communists, but were concerned only with staying in power. In the year of 1968, many people lost their faith in communism.

The Western response

The USA was quick to condemn the Soviet invasion and to cancel the upcoming meeting between US President Lyndon B. Johnson and Brezhnev. Other Western countries also heavily criticised the Soviet action and there were attempts at the UN to pass a resolution condemning the violence, but the USSR's veto meant that this was not possible. No further action was taken by the USA or its allies. The American government was much more concerned with events in Vietnam, where thousands of US soldiers were being killed in an increasingly unpopular war. In the years since the Cuban Missile Crisis there had been a growing sense that the superpowers needed to be on better terms in order to avoid the same situation in the future. It had been established in Hungary in 1956 that the USA would not interfere with Soviet action behind the Iron Curtain. Czechoslovakia did not change that.

Questions

How did different countries and groups reacted to the Soviet invasion?

• Western Countries (e.g., USA, UK): These nations condemned the invasion, seeing it as a violation of Czechoslovakia's sovereignty and freedom. There were public protests in several Western cities, but no direct intervention was made due to the Cold War context.

• Czechoslovak People: Citizens protested the invasion, with large demonstrations in Prague and other cities. Despite their resistance, Soviet forces cracked down, arresting reform leaders like Dubček and re-establishing strict communist control.

• Other Eastern Bloc Countries: While countries like Romania and Albania criticized the invasion and refused to participate in the military action, most other Warsaw Pact nations (such as East Germany and Poland) supported the Soviet intervention, fearing similar reforms might spread to their own countries.

Why do you think many communists outside the Warsaw Pact were angered by the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia?

Many communists outside the Warsaw Pact were angry about the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia because it went against the idea of allowing countries to choose their own path in socialism. The reforms in Czechoslovakia were seen as an attempt to make socialism more democratic and less repressive, but the Soviet Union’s military action seemed like an attack on those freedoms. This angered communists who wanted a less authoritarian form of socialism.

Why do you think the West did not intervene in events in Czechoslovakia?

The West didn’t intervene in Czechoslovakia in 1968 because they feared it would escalate into a larger war with the Soviet Union, possibly even a nuclear conflict. The West also had no military presence in Czechoslovakia and couldn’t act without risking a full-scale confrontation. Additionally, Czechoslovakia was within the Soviet Union's sphere of influence, and the West knew the USSR wouldn’t tolerate interference. Lastly, there was little public support for military action, as people in Western countries were generally against getting involved in another conflict.

Why do you think the Romanians were interested in the Chinese view of Soviet actions in Czechoslovakia?

The Romanians were interested in the Chinese view of the Soviet invasion because they wanted to distance themselves from Soviet control. China was critical of the USSR, and Romania, under Ceaușescu, shared similar concerns about Soviet influence. By supporting China’s view, Romania could show it wanted more independence from the Soviet Union.

What was the Breznehv Doctrine?

After the Prague Spring, Brezhnev was determined to avoid a similar situation arising in the future. To ensure this he created the Brezhnev Doctrine, which clearly outlined what was expected of the other countries within the Warsaw Pact. It also made it clear what would happen if any countries resisted. What did it include? What was its effect on superpower relations?

A change at the top

Brezhnev had replaced Khrushchev as leader of the Communist Party in October 1964. Initially, his position was weaker than Khrushchev's had been but Brezhnev acted quickly to strengthen his position and soon emerged as the undisputed leader of the USSR.

The changes and political manoeuvres of 1964 were unusual in Soviet history in that they involved no bloodshed. Based on his previous experience of Soviet politics, Khrushchev might have expected a bullet in the back of his head or, at the very least, to be branded a traitor and forced into exile. Instead he was allowed to retire peacefully and live out his life just outside Moscow as a 'special pensioner of the USSR'. He made very few public appearances and was very rarely mentioned in the press or by other politicians.

What was the Brezhnev Doctrine?

In November 1968, three months after he had ordered Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia, Brezhnev made a speech in which he outlined his position on any future threats to communism. He made it clear that the USSR was determined to keep communist governments in place in Europe and further afield. It would not allow the governments to be brought down either by external invaders or internal rebels. The Soviet leader had made it clear that, should other countries follow Czechoslovakia's example, they would face the same consequences. Whereas Khrushchev had given himself the space to deal with each situation individually, Brezhnev had established a clear policy for all communist countries.

What was the impact of the Brehznev Doctrine?

One unintended consequence of the Brezhnev Doctrine was that it drove a further wedge between the USSR and China. China was in the middle of the Cultural Revolution, a time of huge upheaval, and was concerned that Brezhnev was suggesting that the Soviets might somehow interfere. The USA's initial response to Brezhnev's speech was to end all talks and discussions about improving relations or disarmament. This position changed quite quickly, however, as the American government did not want to throw away the progress that had been made. Instead, it decided to view the new Soviet policy as defensive; Brezhnev was concerned with events in the communist world - this was not a threat to the USA. Brezhnev's speech was made just days after the USA had elected as president Richard Nixon, a man who had built his career on being an anti-communist in the Senate and then as Eisenhower's vice president. The relationship between Brezhnev and Nixon, two old 'cold warriors', was to define the next period of superpower relations.

Leonid Brezhnev (1906 - 1982)

• Born in the Ukraine, Brezhnev served on the front line during the Second World War.

• His rise through the ranks of the Communist Party was supported by Nikita Khrushchev but he was also in good favour with Stalin during his final years.

• Under Khrushchev, Brezhnev was one of the most powerful people in the Soviet government.

• He became leader after Khrushchev was forced to resign in October 1964.

• Among other things, his rule included the crackdown on opposition in Czechoslovakia and improving relations with the USA during the so-called détente period.

• As his health failed, he became more of a figurehead than the actual leader but was never removed from office. He died in November 1982.

Questions

Imagine you have written a biography of Khrushchev. Write a 50-word blurb for the back cover. You need to get across to the reader who he was and make them want to read the book!

Nikita Khrushchev was a man of contradictions—fearless leader, reformer, and revolutionary, yet a product of Soviet power struggles. From his bold de-Stalinization campaign to the Cuban Missile Crisis, this biography uncovers the rise, triumphs, and eventual fall of one of the most fascinating figures in Cold War history.

Explain the term the 'Brezhnev Doctrine'

The Brezhnev Doctrine was a rule by the Soviet Union that said they could invade any Eastern European country if it tried to move away from communism. It was used to stop reforms in Czechoslovakia in 1968. Basically, the Soviet Union wanted to make sure all Eastern European countries stayed loyal to communism, and if they didn’t, the Soviets would use force to keep them in line.

The Cold War

Detente and a new Cold War

The years 1971 to 1979 were a time of detente between the United States and Soviet Union. Detente is a French word meaning 'relaxation'. In other words, relations between them improved. Why did this happen, and why did it not last?

Reasons for Detente (1960s-1970s)

During the 1960s, the U.S. and the Soviet Union were in an arms race, each trying to outdo the other in building nuclear weapons and missiles. By 1970, the Soviet Union had nearly caught up to the U.S. in missile numbers, with both countries having over 1,000 long-range missiles. At this point, both had enough power to destroy each other completely, so the need to keep racing in the arms buildup was no longer necessary.

Why Both Sides Wanted Detente

1. Soviet Union’s Needs: The Soviet Union could not keep up with the financial cost of the arms race. They needed to spend money on other areas, like improving housing for their people. The Soviets also wanted to increase trade with the West and gain access to Western technology.

2. United States’ Needs: The U.S. wanted to end the unpopular Vietnam War. Improved relations with the Soviet Union could help in this because the Soviets might influence North Vietnam to stop fighting.

Because both countries had these reasons for easing tensions, they were willing to make agreements that would have seemed impossible just a decade earlier.

Key Agreements and Events

• SALT 1 (1972): The U.S. and the Soviet Union signed the first major arms reduction treaty, agreeing to limit their number of ABMs (anti-ballistic missiles) and freeze the number of their long-range nuclear missiles and bombers.

• Further Agreements (1973-74): The two countries agreed to ban the testing of small nuclear weapons and carried out a joint Soyuz-Apollo space flight in 1975.

• Helsinki Accords (1975): Both sides signed the Helsinki Accords, agreeing not to use force to change any borders in Europe and promising to respect human rights.

• SALT 2 (1979): A second arms treaty, SALT 2, was signed, further limiting the number of missiles and bombers the U.S. and Soviet Union could have.

In summary, detente was driven by both the U.S. and the Soviet Union recognizing the need to reduce the risks of nuclear war, manage their resources better, and improve their relationships. These agreements marked a significant shift in Cold War diplomacy.

The failure of Detente

Despite agreements, the U.S. and Soviet Union remained rivals, backing opposing sides in conflicts like the 1973 Arab-Israeli war and continuing to spy on each other. In 1979, relations worsened when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support its communist government against rebels. In response, the U.S. imposed trade restrictions, suspended the SALT 2 Treaty, and boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics. This marked the end of detente.

The New Cold War (1980-85)

The period from 1980 to 1985 marked a new phase in the Cold War and a fresh arms race. The Soviet Union began replacing old missiles with newer SS-20 missiles, each with multiple warheads. In response, the United States announced plans for new weapons: a neutron bomb (1981), the MX missile (1982), and the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) in 1983, which aimed to create a space-based missile defense system using lasers. In Europe, U.S. air bases were equipped with nuclear-armed Cruise and Pershing missiles. By 1985, both countries had about 10,000 nuclear warheads each, enough to destroy both nations and much of the northern hemisphere. This arms buildup was paired with increased tensions. President Reagan called the Soviet Union an "empire of evil," and in retaliation, the Soviet Union boycotted the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics.

Gorbachev's 'New Thinking'

In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the new leader of the Soviet Union and introduced a shift in policy. Focused on addressing the country's internal issues, such as modernizing industry and improving efficiency, Gorbachev realized that this could only be funded by reducing military spending. To do this, he needed to ease tensions with the United States, halt the arms race, and end the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan.

This new approach made Gorbachev more open to dialogue with the U.S. than previous Soviet leaders. As a result, he and President Reagan held several meetings, leading to the 1987 INF (Intermediate Nuclear Forces) Treaty. This agreement committed both countries to eliminate all medium-range missiles in Europe within three years. The Soviet Union agreed to dismantle 3,000 warheads, while the U.S. removed 800, marking a significant step toward nuclear disarmament.

Timeline: 1970 - 1990

Detente (Blue)

1972 – SALT 1 Treaty
Both the U.S. and the Soviet Union agree to limit anti-ballistic missiles (ABMs) and freeze the number of nuclear missiles and bombers.

1975 – Soyuz-Apollo Mission
The U.S. and the Soviet Union conduct a joint space mission, symbolizing cooperation in space exploration.

1975 – Helsinki Accords
Signed by 35 nations, including the U.S. and the Soviet Union, agreeing to respect borders in Europe and uphold human rights.

1979 – SALT 2 Treaty
The U.S. and the Soviet Union sign a treaty to limit nuclear weapons, though it is never fully ratified due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

New Cold War (Red)

1979 – Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan
Soviet forces invade Afghanistan to support the communist government against rebel forces. This triggers a breakdown in U.S.-Soviet relations.

1980 – U.S. Boycott of Moscow Olympics
The U.S. boycotts the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow in protest of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

1983 – U.S. Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI)
President Reagan announces the SDI, also known as "Star Wars," a missile defense system using space-based lasers to protect against nuclear missiles.

1983 – Cruise Missiles Deployed in Europe
The U.S. places nuclear-armed Cruise and Pershing missiles in Europe, increasing tensions with the Soviet Union.

1984 – Soviet Boycott of Los Angeles Olympics
In retaliation for the U.S. boycott of Moscow's 1980 Games, the Soviet Union boycotts the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.

Gorbachev's "New Thinking" (Green)

1985 – Gorbachev Becomes Leader of the Soviet Union
Mikhail Gorbachev becomes the Soviet leader, introducing policies aimed at internal reform and easing tensions with the West.

1987 – INF Treaty
The U.S. and the Soviet Union sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, agreeing to eliminate medium-range nuclear missiles in Europe.

Color Key:

• Blue = Detente

• Red = New Cold War

• Green = Gorbachev's "New Thinking"

The Colapse of Communist Europe

Communist rule in much of Eastern Europe collapsed in 1989. The first signs of the collapse could be seen much earlier, in Poland in 1980.

Poland and Solidarity

In 1980, the Polish government raised food prices, causing widespread protests. This led to strikes by shipworkers in Baltic ports, who demanded higher wages, the right to form a free trade union, and more freedom for the Catholic Church. In response, the government allowed workers in Gdansk to create a union called Solidarity—the first non-communist trade union in a communist country. Led by Lech Walesa, Solidarity quickly grew to around 10 million members, becoming a powerful force.

As Solidarity began pushing for more political changes, such as free elections, there were fears that the Soviet Union might invade Poland to crush the movement. However, Soviet forces were already stretched thin in Afghanistan, so they chose not to intervene. Instead, the Polish leader, General Jaruzelski, took control. In 1981, he declared martial law, banned Solidarity, and arrested thousands of its members, including Walesa, bringing the situation under control and securing communist rule for the time being.

Gorbachev and the Satelites

In 1980, the Polish government raised food prices, causing widespread protests. This led to strikes by shipworkers in Baltic ports, who demanded higher wages, the right to form a free trade union, and more freedom for the Catholic Church. In response, the government allowed workers in Gdansk to create a union called Solidarity—the first non-communist trade union in a communist country. Led by Lech Walesa, Solidarity quickly grew to around 10 million members, becoming a powerful force.

As Solidarity began pushing for more political changes, such as free elections, there were fears that the Soviet Union might invade Poland to crush the movement. However, Soviet forces were already stretched thin in Afghanistan, so they chose not to intervene. Instead, the Polish leader, General Jaruzelski, took control. In 1981, he declared martial law, banned Solidarity, and arrested thousands of its members, including Walesa, bringing the situation under control and securing communist rule for the time being.

1989'; a year of miracles

The changes began in Poland. Sharp price rises again led, to mass protests and strikes. This time, General Jaruzelski decided against using force. Hoping to get the support of the strikers, he ended the ban on Solidarity and arranged free elections. He miscalculated. Solidarity won so many of the seats in the election that he was forced to appoint a Solidarity member as Prime Minister.

Hungary

In Hungary the communist leaders had also accepted the need for change. In 1989 they allowed political parties to be set up and arranged elections. They also took away the barbed wire and fences from their border with Austria, thus opening the first gap in the Iron Curtain.

East Germany

This immediapely triggered changes in Hast Germany. Now-that there was a gap in the Iron Curtain, many thousands of East Germans rushed to escape through Hungary into Austria and then to West Germany. As in 1961, East Germany could not attord this drain of skilled workers. In an attempt to slow the rush to escape, the government announced that people could travel freely abroad. When this led to the opening of che Berlin Wall in November, joytul Berliners began to destroy the wall with hammers and chisels.

Czechoslovakia and Romania

These events in turn triggered changes elsewhere. After mass protest rallies in Prague, the Czech parliament ended the "leading role' of the Communist Party in Czechoslovakia and announced free clections. In Romania, the Communist leader Ceaucescu was shot while trying to flee the country after widespread demonstrations against his rule.

By the end of 1989, then, communist rule had ended in all the Soviet satellites and the Iron Curtain had been torn down. This was so sudden and unexpected that 1989 has since been described as 'the year of miracles'.