Detailed Notes on Sensory-Perception, Attention, and Memory

INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH TO COGNITION

  • Overview: Emphasizes fundamental mental processes involved in taking in, storing, and using information.
  • Components:
    • Hardware: Refers to the nervous system.
    • Software: Refers to mental processes.
  • Development: Driven by changes in the software, such as changes in capacity and speed of mental processes.

COGNITIVE PROCESSES

  • Taking in information:

    • Sensation: Detects information through sensory receptors (the five senses).
    • Perception: Interprets sensory input.
    • Attention: Focuses perception and cognition on a specific stimulus.

  • Storing information:

    • Sensory Register: Logs sensory information briefly for processing.
    • Memory: Ability to store and later use information.

  • Using information:

    • Problem Solving: Employs the information processing system to achieve goals or make decisions.

MEMORY AND LEARNING

  • Memory Types:

    • Short-term Memory: Holds limited information (~7 items/chunks).
    • Working Memory: A short-term memory that holds information actively being worked upon; includes:
    • Central executive (supervisor).
    • Phonological loop (auditory info).
    • Visual-spatial scratchpad (visual/spatial info).
    • Episodic buffer (integrates auditory/visual info).
    • Long-term Memory: Large capacity, relatively permanent storage for examined and interpreted information.

  • Memory Processes:

    • Encoding: Getting information into the system.
    • Consolidation: Processing and organizing info for long-term storage.
    • Storage: Ongoing retention of information.
    • Retrieval: Getting information out of memory (recognition vs. recall).

TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY

  • Explicit (declarative): Information that can be consciously recalled.
    • Episodic: Events and experiences.
    • Semantic: Facts and general knowledge.
  • Implicit (nondeclarative): Automatically retrieved knowledge.
    • Skills and procedures: Tasks learned by practice.
    • Other forms: Priming, classical conditioning, habituation.

PROBLEM SOLVING

  • Overview: Involves utilizing the information processing system to meet goals or make decisions guided by executive control processes.
  • Functions of Executive Control: Directs and monitors the selection, organization, manipulation, and interpretation of information.

INFANT SENSORY CAPABILITIES

  • Vision:

    • Visual Acuity: Poor at birth (~20/120); improves with age.
    • 1st Month: 20/120
    • 4 Months: 20/60
    • 8 Months: 20/30
    • Optimal: 20/20
    • Visual Accommodation: Limited ability to focus on varying distances.
    • Color Vision: Matures by 2-3 months.

  • Pattern Perception: Preference for light-dark transitions, moderately complex patterns, and movement.

  • Depth Perception: Acquires size consistency by ~4 months; perceives visual cliffs by 2 months.

  • Hearing:

    • Good at birth with preference for complex auditory stimuli (especially speech).

  • Taste and Smell:

    • Can distinguish tastes; preference for sweet.
    • Sense of smell is functional; can recognize familiar odors.

  • Integrating Sensory Information:

    • Ability to combine sensory modalities begins at birth, leading to cross-modal perception development.

CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN SENSATION AND MEMORY

  • Sensory-Perceptual Refinement: Major sensory development complete by end of infancy, but continues through childhood.

  • Attention Development:

    • Changes from being captured by stimuli to being actively directed towards them; improvements include:
    • Attention Span: Increases up to ages 8-9.
    • Selectivity: Becomes more selective but may still be easily distracted.
    • Systematic Attention: Improves throughout childhood into adulthood.

  • Memory Development:

    • Childhood shows increased encoding, consolidation, and storage processes with age.
    • Importance of memory strategies (like rehearsal and elaboration) increases predictably with age.

ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

  • Refined Attention: Longer attention spans, better ability to ignore distractions, and improvements in working memory capacity.
  • Memory and Problem Solving: Continued improvements in basic capacities, strategy mastery, metamemory, and knowledge base expansion.

ADULT DEVELOPMENT

  • Changes in Sensation and Perception: Gradual decline in sensory and perceptual capacities; sensory thresholds may rise with age.
  • Memory and Problem Solving: Older adults learn new material more slowly; influenced by environmental context and prior knowledge.
  • Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC): A strategy for coping with cognitive resource decline:
    • Selection: Focus on essential goals.
    • Optimization: Maintain vital skills.
    • Compensation: Adapt strategies to address deficits.