Ch. 13: Reformations and Religious Wars, 1500-1600
Questions and Terms | Notes |
1) How did the political situation in Germany shape the course of the Reformation?
2) How did Protestant ideas and institutions spread beyond German-speaking lands?
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1) Holy Roman Empire: a complex and decentralized territory in Central Europe that was ruled by an emperor. Religious wars erupted throughout this empire due to the debate between Catholicism v. Protestantism. The Rise of the Habsburg Dynasty 1) Hapsburgs: utilized the strategic centralization strategy of marriage to gain territory and money through the marriage of the Holy Roman emperor Frederick III and Princess Eleonore of Portugal (1452). Became an international powerhouse through strategic marriages. → Continued this strategy of marriage across Hapsburg generations to acquire lands such as the Netherlands and Luxembourg. 1) Charles V: apart of the Hapsburg lineage who governed in a different manner than his ancestors did. Remained a Catholic throughout his life. Allowed Princes in Germany to choose between Catholicism and Protestantism. →He believed that it was his duty to maintain the political+religious unity of Western Christendom (Catholicism). Religious Wars in Switzerland and Germany
-Luther used the phrase “we Germans” in his attacks on the papacy creating nationalism. -Attracted to Lutheran ideas due to the material considerations promised with the new faith (ex: lush farmlands, rich monasteries, and wealthy shrines). -Enhance their independence from the Holy Roman emperor
1) Augsburg Confession: Lutherans developed a statement of faith that the Protestant princes presented to emperor Charles V. → Charles refused to accept it and ordered Protestants to return to Catholicism. Unsuccessful plead. 1) Habsburg-Valois Wars: wars between the Habsburg dynasty and the French (1521-1559). → Habsburg victory
1) Peace of Augsburg: officially recognized Lutheranism after the religious wars in Switzerland and Germany (1555). →Permitted each territory in the HRE to decide whether they would be Catholic or Lutheran. No freedom of religion within individual territories though. Created religious refugees. __________________________________
Scandinavia 2) King Christian III: king of the kingdom of Denmark-Norway who accepted Lutheran/Protestant ideas quickly. Henry VIII and Reformation in England 2) King Henry VIII: the cause of the breakthrough of Protestantism in England due to his desire for a new wife. →Originally loved the Catholic church (Defense of Seven Sacraments) criticized Luther’s views. Changed his viewpoint because Pope Clement VII was unable to grant a papal dispensation for an annulment. 2) Catherine of Aragon: first wife of King Henry VIII who had a daughter, Mary, with him. Divorced from King Henry VIII because of her inability to produce a son. 2) Anne Boleyn: the second wife of King Henry VIII. Failed twice to produce a male child and was charged with adulterous incest and was therefore beheaded. 2) English Reformation: King Henry VIII originally married to the Spanish princess, Catherine of Aragon, and they had a daughter, Mary, together. Henry angry due to Catherine having a daughter instead of a son, so he asked the pope to have the marriage annulled, but he was denied. He used Parliament to end the authority of the pope and to make himself head of the church in England.
2) Thomas Cromwell: King Henry VIII’s chief minister who had appointed the archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. → Put an English Bible in every church and dissolved English monasteries for profit. 2) English (Anglican) Church: Created by King Henry VIII originally so he could divorce his first wife. Broke A Protestant denomination that is known for its relative progressiveness. Services conducted in English, monasteries were not reestablished, and clergymen were allowed to marry. Church remained hierarchical and services continued to be elaborate. → The Act of Supremacy (1534) made the king the offical head of the Church of England
Upholding Protestantism in England 2) Edward VI: King Henry VIII’s son. Had a short reign due to him being sickly, but Protestant ideas exerted a significant influence on the religious life of the country during his reign.
2) Mary Tudor: short reign as Queen of England yet witnessed a sharp move back to Catholicism during her reign. →Restored Roman Catholicism in England, executed several hundred Protestants. Becomes known as “Bloody Mary” for all of the Protestants she killed. 2) Elizabeth I: Mary Tudor’s half-sister who reigned as Queen of England. →Raised as a Protestant and her reign created the beginnings of religious stability in England. Did this by choosing a middle course between Catholic and Puritan extremes. Wanted to have power publicly, but not in people’s private religious lives.
2) Puritans: people who wanted to “purify” the church in England. Favored simple services in church. 2) Elizabethan Settlement: a series of laws Elizabeth I implemented into English life. → Included that she was to be supreme in matter of religion and politics, required English citizens to attend the Church of England or else they would be fined, and called for the frequent preaching of Protestant ideas. 2) Philip II: From Spain, married his cousin, Mary Tudor; hoped that this marriage would reunite England with Catholic Europe -unsuccessful due to Mary’s death. 2) Spanish armada (include battle in English Channel): The Spanish army was ordered to escort barges carrying some other Spanish troops across the English Channel to attack England(1588). →Spanish lost due to a combination of storms, spoiled food, inadequate Spanish ammunition, and the strength of English fire ships. Spain improved its navy as a result and the defeat prevented Philip II from reimposing Catholicism on England by force. Calvinism 2) John Calvin: born in Noyon, France in 1509. Converted to Protestantism after a religious crisis, and started to preach more about it. → Believed that God had specifically chosen him to reform the church and his idea on predestination. 2) Institutes of the Christian Religion: Writing by John Calvin about his religious ideas. Main belief of Calvin that was expressed in this text was that God has absolute sovereignty and omnipotence over the total weakness of humanity. → Asserted that men and women were as insignificant as “grains of sand” 2) Predestination: the belief that God, in his infinite wisdom, decided at the beginning of time who would be saved and who would damned. Enabled strong Christian communities to be built. → What Calvin believed in. 2) Geneva: a city in Switzerland that Calvin transformed into a community based on his religious principles. → Became a model city of a Christian community for many Protestant reformers. Where religious refugees from Mary Tudor’s England stayed. 2) Consistory: the most powerful organization in Geneva; a group of laymen and pastors charged with investigating and discipling deviations from proper doctrine and conduct. →Sometimes used torture to extract confessions and imposed other harsh penalties for those who disobeyed God’s law.
2) John Knox: A Scottish noble who dominated the reform movement in Scotland. → His efforts led to the establishment of a state church. Aimed to structure the Scottish church after the model of Geneva. Presbyterian Church of Scotland established.
-Scotland (Presbyterianism) -Huguenots (France) -Dutch Reformed Church -Puritans in England The Reformation in Eastern Europe 2) Appeal of Protestantism in Eastern Europe: -The nobility embraced Lutherism in opposition to the Catholic Habsburgs in Bohemia. Not all of Bohemia fully embraced Protestantism yet. -In Poland-Lithuania, Luther’s ideas spread throughout Germanized towns, but were opposed by King Sigismund I and ordinary Poles. -The fact that Calvinism originated in France, not in Germany, made it more appealing than Lutherism due to anti-German opinions in Poland-Lithuania. -In Hungary, Lutherism was spread by students who had studied in Wittenberg, but concern about “the German heresy” caused those who favored Lutherism to be executed and their property to be confiscated. 2) Suleiman the Magnificent (include impact on religion in area): Ottoman sultan who inflicted a crushing defeat on the Hungarians. → Hungarian kingdom was then divided into three parts causing different religions to be spread throughout these factions. |