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Tolerance and Intolerance in the East

Overview of Islam's Dual Nature

Islam exhibits a complex duality, showcasing both remarkable ethnic and racial tolerance and a marked fundamental intolerance regarding religious practices.

Ethnic Tolerance: Islam is open to followers of any race, nationality, or ethnic background, allowing diverse populations to embrace the faith and practice Islamic traditions. Throughout history, various Muslim communities have included Arabs, Africans, Turks, Persians, and Southeast Asians, contributing to a rich tapestry of cultural and ethnic diversity.
Religious Intolerance: Islam posits that there is only one God (Allah) and one absolute Truth, which occasionally results in internal conflicts among different Islamic sects and divergent interpretations of religious doctrine. This intolerance can create tensions within communities, particularly with differing beliefs and practices.

Internal Conflicts in the Islamic World

The Islamic world has experienced significant internal schisms, particularly evident during the Middle Ages, most notably the rift between Shias and Sunnis.

Intensity of Conflict: The intensity of these internal conflicts has often paralleled, and at times exceeded, the conflicts seen between Catholics and Protestants in Europe during the Reformation.
Historical Events: Significant historical events include the violent massacre of the Umayyad family by the Abbasids in 750, which intensified divisions. Despite these divisions, powerful regional empires rose, including the Ottoman, Ming, and Mughal Empires, each shaping their respective cultural and political landscapes.

The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was founded by the House of Osman and expanded extensively from the edge of Vienna to North Africa and the Balkans from 1300 until the end of World War I.

Religious Tolerance: The Ottomans were known for their religious tolerance, allowing Christians and Jews to practice their religions while recognizing Islam’s supremacy. This policy of tolerance was instrumental in ensuring stability and administrative efficiency within a diverse society.
Impact of Tolerance: This tolerance led to significant cultural and economic flourishing, particularly with the integration of Sephardic Jews expelled from Spain in 1492. Sultan Bayezid II, known for his compassionate rule, welcomed these Jewish populations, further enriching the empire's cultural diversity.

Recognition of Contributions from Non-Muslims

Under the Ottoman Empire, non-Muslim communities significantly contributed to the economy, with many Jews becoming influential and wealthy financiers and merchants in major cities.

Golden Age: Suleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566) marked the golden age of the Ottoman Empire, celebrated for his military prowess, architectural achievements (like the Suleymaniye Mosque), and administrative reforms that strengthened the empire's bureaucratic structure.
Social Hierarchy: Although non-Muslims enjoyed earnings and wealth, they existed within a societal hierarchy that favored Muslims, often limiting their access to certain privileges and positions.

Restrictions and Rights of Non-Muslims

Although non-Muslims cohabitated and worked alongside Muslims, they faced various restrictions and taxes. Examples include:

Social Restrictions: Non-Muslims were often required to wear distinctive clothing colors and faced limitations in employment and property ownership.
Social Mobility: Some restrictions could be lax or overlooked, allowing individuals such as Joseph Nasi, a Jewish convert, to rise to prominence and showcase the potential for non-Muslims to gain power within the empire.

Decline of Ottoman Tolerance

Following the death of Suleyman, a notable shift occurred in the empire's attitudes towards religious tolerance.

Persecution: Growing criticism of minority groups often resulted in persecution, escalating tensions that included violent outbreaks and economic penalties. This polarization weakened the empire's sociopolitical unity and stability.

Ming Dynasty China

The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) initially emphasized agricultural reform and domestic governance, largely rejecting foreign trade in favor of self-sufficiency.

Naval Expansion: The Ming established an impressive navy, with legendary admiral Zheng He's voyages aimed at establishing tributary relations rather than conquest. However, post-1424, the Ming emperors turned increasingly inward, dismissing maritime excursions and sealing trade routes to outside influence.

The Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire, established by a descendant of Genghis Khan, governed over the Indian subcontinent where a significant portion of the population was non-Muslim.

Akbar's Policies: Akbar (1556-1605) is renowned for his policies of religious tolerance, actively integrating Hindus into his court and promoting interfaith discussions, which included public gatherings on religion and the abolition of the jiziya, a tax levied on non-Muslims.
Aurangzeb's Reversal: His successor, Aurangzeb, however, reversed Akbar’s policies, enforcing strict adherence to Sharia law, re-introducing the jiziya tax, and destroying Hindu temples. These actions contributed to destabilizing the empire, igniting sectarian strife and weakening central authority.

Conclusion on Religious Policies

Throughout these empires, the initial embrace of tolerance served as a strategic advantage, facilitating control and fostering economic prosperity. Conversely, the adoption of religious intolerance often acted as a catalyst for decline, rendering these empires more susceptible to external pressures and colonialism, particularly evident with British imperialistic expansion in the Indian subcontinent and the Ottoman territories.