Study Notes on the Meiji Restoration (1868-1889)

A period of rapid modernization and Westernization that transformed Japan from an isolated, feudal society in 1850 into a world power and colonial empire by the time of the Emperor's death in 1912.
The name "Meiji" translates to "Enlightened Rule," representing the goal of centralizing authority under the Emperor to preserve Japanese independence against Western imperialism.

Political Stability: Known as the Great Peace, the Bakufu (shogunate) maintained control through a centralized feudal system and strict social hierarchies.
Policy of Isolation (Sakoku): For over 200 years, Japan limited foreign contact almost exclusively to the Dutch and Chinese at the port of Dejima in Nagasaki.
Intellectual Growth: Literacy rates were remarkably high for the period, and the study of "Dutch Learning" (Rangaku) allowed Japanese scholars to keep a limited eye on Western scientific progress.

By the mid-1800s, internal pressures were destabilizing the Shogunate:
- Financial Crisis: The agrarian-based tax system failed to keep up with the growing commercial economy, leaving both the Shogunate and local daimyo (lords) in debt.
- Samurai Redundancy: With no wars to fight, many samurai became bureaucrats or lived in poverty, leading to resentment of the status quo.
- Merchant Frustration: Despite their wealth, merchants remained at the bottom of the social hierarchy with no formal political power.
- Peasant Unrest: Frequent famines and heavy taxation led to localized uprisings and calls for reform.

Commodore Matthew Perry: The arrival of American "Black Ships" in 1853 forced the Tokugawa leadership to realize their lack of modern military technology.
Treaty of Kanagawa (1854): Ending isolation, this agreement opened two ports and established a U.S. consulate.
The "Unequal Treaties": Japan was forced into several agreements that surrendered sovereign rights:
- Extraterritoriality: Foreigners were exempt from Japanese law.
- Tariff Autonomy: Japan lost the right to set its own import duties, allowing cheap Western goods to flood the market.
- Most Favored Nation: Any trade privilege given to one Western power was automatically granted to others.

Pro-Imperial Sentiment: Discontented domains, particularly Satsuma and Chōshū, rallied under the slogan Sonnō Jōi ("Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarian").
The Boshin War (1868-1869): A civil war between Shogunate forces and Imperial loyalists. The modern weapons and tactics of the southern domains led to an Imperial victory.
Restoration: In 1867, the last Shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, resigned. The 15-year-old Emperor Meiji was moved to the revamped capital, Tokyo.

The Charter Oath (1868): A declaration of intent that promised to discard "evil customs of the past" and seek knowledge throughout the world to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule.
Centralization:
- Abolition of the Han System (1871): Traditional domains were replaced by prefectures under a central bureaucracy.
- Land Tax Reform (1873): Shifted taxation from rice crops to land value paid in cash, providing the government with a stable revenue stream for industrial investment.
Social Levelling: The feudal class system was abolished, including the legal privileges of the samurai, such as the right to carry swords in public.

Fukoku Kyōhei: The national motto "Rich Country, Strong Army" drove policy.
The Iwakura Mission (1871-1873): Japanese officials traveled to the U.S. and Europe to study modern schooling, banking, and military systems while seeking unsuccessfully to renegotiate the Unequal Treaties.
Yatoi: The government hired thousands of Western experts to assist in building infrastructure and training the military.

Infrastructure: The first railway line (Tokyo to Yokohama) opened in 1872, followed by telegraph lines and a national postal system.
Zaibatsu: Large family-owned business conglomerates (e.g., Mitsubishi, Mitsui) were encouraged by the state to lead Japan's industrial growth.
Compulsory Education: Established in 1872 to create a literate and disciplined workforce.

Satsuma Rebellion (1877): Led by Saigo Takamori, this was the final armed resistance by samurai against the new order. Its defeat proved the efficiency of the new conscript army.
The Meiji Constitution (1889):
- Drafted by Itō Hirobumi after studying European (primarily Prussian) models.
- Defined the Emperor as "sacred and inviolable" and gave him ultimate authority over the military.
- Established the Imperial Diet (parliament), though power remained largely in the hands of the executive cabinet.

Nationalism: State Shinto was promoted to foster a sense of shared identity and loyalty to the Emperor.
Global Recognition: Japan’s military success in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) signaled its arrival as a global power.
End of Unequal Treaties: By the early 1900s, Japan successfully renegotiated the treaties, regaining legal and tariff autonomy.