Civil Rights, Civil Liberties, Political Cleavages, Civil Society, Political Culture, Political Ideologies, Political Participation

Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

  • Civil liberties: Protection from government. Freedoms like speech, religion, media, and protection of the accused.
  • Civil rights: Equality extended by the government.
  • Both democratic and authoritarian regimes impose constraints on the media to protect citizens and maintain order.
    • Democratic regimes generally tolerate a high degree of media freedom to encourage citizen control of the political agenda and check political power and corruption.
      • China's Great Firewall: Limits access to social media.
      • Iran and Russia: Ban on certain social media apps and restrictions to free press critical of the regime.
  • Transparency: Allows information about government and policy making to circulate openly.
  • Illiberal Democracies (hybrid regimes, competitive authoritarian):
    • Holding contested elections but with limited degrees of competitiveness.
    • Providing minimal civil liberty protections and governmental transparency. Example: Russia

Political and Social Cleavages

  • Social and political cleavages:

    • Internal divisions that structure societies and may be based on class, ethnicity, religion, or territory.

  • Examples:

    • China: Ethnic and regional divisions.
      • Majority Han ethnic group vs. at least 55 recognized ethnic minorities (e.g., Uighurs, Tibetans).
      • Divisions between areas that have developed at different rates.
    • Iran: Religious divisions.
      • Shi'a Muslim majority vs. other religions (Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism).
      • Divisions within Islam (Shi'a vs. Sunni).
      • Ethnic cleavages between Persians and ethnic minorities (Azerbaijanis, Kurds).
    • Mexico: Ethnic and regional divisions.
      • Amerindian (indigenous) population vs. whites and mestizos.
      • Regional divisions between the north and the south.
    • Nigeria: Ethnic, religious, and regional cleavages.
      • Ethnic divisions among more than 250 ethnic groups (Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo).
      • Religious and regional cleavages between the north (predominantly Muslim) and the south (where Christians and animists are concentrated).
    • Russia: Ethnic and religious cleavages.
      • Ethnic Russians (more than 80% of the population, tend to be Russian Orthodox) vs. minority, non-Russian populations (e.g., Chechens).
    • United Kingdom: Ethnic and regional differences.
      • Scottish, English, Welsh, and Irish nations.
      • Religious differences between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland.
      • Racial tensions between whites and non-European minorities related to the UK's colonial history.

  • Major social and political cleavages differ across countries and affect:

    • Voting behavior and party systems.
    • Informal political networks.

  • Regimes dealing with radical/terrorism from religious elements that have grown from long-standing cleavages (Nigeria, UK, Russia).

  • State responses can range from brute repression to recognition of ethnic/religious minorities and creation of autonomous regions and/or representation of minorities in governmental institutions.

  • Social cleavages have different impacts in course countries.

    • Separatist movements have emerged in China, Iran, Nigeria, Russia, and the United Kingdom as a result of social cleavages.
      • Other groups demanding autonomy, but not independence, have emerged in Mexico and the United Kingdom.
    • Ethnicity has played a more significant role in Nigeria than in Mexico because of different colonial histories and a greater diversity and politicization of ethnic/religious identities in Nigeria.

Challenges from Political and Social Cleavages

  • Challenges governments face in securing stability in multinational states:
    • Conflicting interests and competition among groups and political parties.
    • Perceived lack of governmental authority and legitimacy.
    • Pressure for autonomy/secession, intergroup conflict, terrorism, and civil war.
    • Encroachment of neighboring states that sense government weakness and vulnerability.

Civil Society

  • Civil Society: comprises a range of voluntary associations that are autonomous from the state, including:
    • local religious and neighborhood organizations
    • news media
    • business and professional associations
    • non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
  • Civil society is influenced by regime types.
    • Authoritarian governments tend to have more monitoring or restrictive policies
  • Civil society organizations are important for democratization.
  • Civil society organizations, to varying degrees, can:
    • monitor and lobby the government
    • expose governmental malfeasance
    • represent the interests of members
    • provide members with organizational experience.

Political Culture

  • Political culture is the collective attitudes, values, and beliefs of the citizenry and the norms of behavior in the political system.
  • Sets expectations about the exercise of power to establish a balance between social order and individual liberty.
  • Political culture is influenced by political socialization.
  • Political socialization: lifelong process of acquiring one's beliefs, values, and orientations toward the political system.
    • Family, media, school, religion, etc., all influence.
    • The state can control socialization methods.
  • Authoritarian regimes apply more concerted governmental pressures to socialize their citizens around conforming beliefs than do democratic regimes.

Political Ideologies

  • Political ideology: A set of values and beliefs about the goals of government, public policy, or politics
  • 6 ideologies you need to know:
    1. Individualism: belief in individual civil liberties and freedom over governmental restrictions
    2. Neoliberalism: belief in limited governmental intervention in the economy and society; supports privatization, free trade, deregulation, and the elimination of state subsidies
    3. Socialism: belief in the reduction of income disparities and the nationalization of major private industries
    4. Communism: belief in the abolition of private property with near total governmental control of the economy
    5. Fascism: extreme nationalist ideology that favors authoritarian rule and the rights of the ethnic majority over that of ethnic minorities and the political opposition
    6. Populism: political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over that of the elites

Political Values and Beliefs

  • Political ideologies dictate how the state treats its citizens and how they deal with specific problems.
  • Political beliefs associated with authoritarian regimes tend to rely on rule by law, in which the state uses the law to reinforce the authority of the state.
  • Political beliefs associated with democratic regimes tend to rely on rule of law, in which the state is limited to the same rules as its citizens.
  • Post-materialism refers to
    • Social valuing of self-expression and quality of life that leads to applying pressure on governments to address environmental issues and social and economic equality.

Nature and Role of Political Participation

  • Political participation can be voluntary or coerced and may occur at the individual or group level.
  • Participation can be in support of a regime or opposition that seeks change in government policies or overthrow the regime.
  • Informal participation might increase because of political conditions. This participation might include violent political behavior.
  • Formal political participation (including casting ballots in elections) encouraged by regime because:
    • Increases legitimacy
    • Gathers information
    • Acts as a safety valve
    • Applies as check on gov't
  • Authoritarian regimes might use formal participation to intimidate the opposition and as an illusion of influence.
  • Referendums allow citizens to vote directly on policy questions and are used for a variety of reasons:
    • Promote democracy/legitimacy
    • Bypass legislature
    • Make leaders less accountable for difficult or controversial decisions
  • UK: Referendums include Brexit, Scottish independence (failed), devolved parliaments, Good Friday Agreement, change to electoral system (failed).
  • Russia: Constitutional referendum in 2019 reset Putin's terms.
  • Mexico: AMLO has used them more, including building a new airport.
  • Iran: Change to theocracy.

Forces that Impact Political Participation

  • Regime types influence formal political participation.
    • Both authoritarian and democratic regimes have limitations on formal participation.
  • Authoritarian regimes tolerate mass political protests and movements less than democratic regimes do, valuing public order more than individual liberties and civil rights.

Comparative Government Test

Section 1: Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

  1. Define civil liberties and civil rights, providing an example of each.
  2. Discuss the role of media freedom in democratic regimes as opposed to authoritarian regimes.
  3. Explain China's Great Firewall and its implications for civil liberties.
  4. Describe the concept of Transparency and its importance in government.

Section 2: Political and Social Cleavages

  1. Identify and explain three examples of social cleavages in different countries (e.g., China, Iran, Nigeria).
  2. What impacts do major social and political cleavages have on voting behavior and party systems?
  3. How can state responses to social cleavages vary, and what are the possible outcomes?

Section 3: Civil Society

  1. Define civil society and discuss its significance in the context of democratization.
  2. Compare how authoritarian and democratic regimes impact civil society organizations.

Section 4: Political Culture and Ideologies

  1. Explain the term political culture and its key components.
  2. Compare and contrast the political ideologies of individualism and socialism.
  3. What is post-materialism and how does it reflect societal values?

Section 5: Political Participation

  1. Distinguish between voluntary and coerced political participation, providing examples.
  2. What are referendums, and how do they contribute to political legitimacy and participation in different countries?
  3. Discuss how regime types influence the participation of citizens in political processes, highlighting differences between authoritarian and democratic regimes.

Section 6: Multiple Choice Questions

  1. Which of the following best describes civil liberties?
    A) Equality enforced by the government
    B) Protection from government interference
    C) Rights granted solely to citizens
    D) Collective action against oppression

  2. Which country is known for its restrictive media policies, including the Great Firewall?
    A) Iran
    B) Russia
    C) China
    D) Mexico

  3. Illiberal democracies are characterized by:
    A) High levels of governmental transparency
    B) Contested elections with limited competitiveness
    C) Complete civil liberties
    D) No elections at all

  4. In Nigeria, which of the following cleavages primarily influences its political landscape?
    A) Ethnic and regional divisions
    B) Economic preferences
    C) Environmental issues
    D) Linguistic diversity

  5. What is a key function of civil society organizations in democratic contexts?
    A) Enforcing laws
    B) Suppressing dissent
    C) Monitoring government actions
    D) Promoting military involvement in politics