anatomy exam 1

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Key Concepts

  • Anatomy = structure; Physiology = function.

  • Structure and function are closely related.

Characteristics of Life

  1. Cellular composition (cells = basic unit).

  2. Metabolism:

    • Anabolism (build), Catabolism (break down).

  3. Growth (cell size/number).

  4. Excretion (waste removal).

  5. Responsiveness (sense & react).

  6. Movement.

  7. Reproduction (cells/organisms).

Levels of Organization

  • Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism.

  • 11 organ systems work together to form the human body.

Anatomical Terms

  • Anatomical position: standing, feet apart, palms forward.

  • Directional terms: anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, proximal/distal, medial/lateral, superficial/deep.

  • Planes: sagittal, frontal, transverse, oblique.

  • Body regions: axial (head, neck, trunk), appendicular (limbs).

Body Cavities

  • Posterior: cranial (brain), spinal (spinal cord).

  • Anterior: thoracic (pleural, mediastinum, pericardial) + abdominopelvic.

  • Membranes: serous membranes (visceral vs. parietal).

Homeostasis

  • Stable internal environment.

  • Controlled by feedback loops:

    • Negative feedback → returns to set point (temperature control).

    • Positive feedback → amplifies stimulus until event stops it (childbirth, blood clotting).

Core Principles

  • Structure ↔ function.

  • Gradients drive processes (concentration, pressure, temperature).

  • Cell-cell communication via electrical & chemical signals.

Chapter 2: Chemistry of Life

Organic Compounds

  • Built from monomers → polymers.

  • Dehydration synthesis = builds; Hydrolysis = breaks apart.

  • 4 major types: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids.

Carbohydrates

  • C:H:O ratio ~1:2:1, polar & hydrophilic.

  • Function: fuel.

  • Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose.

  • Disaccharides: sucrose, lactose.

  • Polysaccharides: starch (plants), glycogen (animals).

  • Special: glycoproteins & glycolipids (cell recognition).

Lipids

  • Mostly C & H, nonpolar & hydrophobic.

  • Functions: fuel, membranes, hormones.

  • Fatty acids:

    • Saturated (solid, animal fats).

    • Unsaturated (liquid oils).

    • Trans fats (harmful).

    • Omega-3 (healthy).

  • Triglycerides = glycerol + 3 fatty acids (storage).

  • Phospholipids = glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate (amphiphilic, membranes).

  • Steroids = 4-ring structure (cholesterol, hormones).

Proteins

  • Made of amino acids (21 types).

  • Functions: structure, enzymes, defense, movement, communication.

  • Structures:

    1. Primary = sequence.

    2. Secondary = helices/sheets.

    3. Tertiary = 3D folding.

    4. Quaternary = multiple chains.

  • Types: fibrous (structural) & globular (functional).

  • Denaturation: loss of shape (heat, pH, chemicals).

Nucleic Acids

  • Monomer = nucleotide (base + sugar + phosphate).

  • Bases: Purines (A, G); Pyrimidines (C, T, U).

ATP

  • Main energy currency; made from ADP + phosphate.

  • Requires oxygen & glucose; hydrolysis releases energy.

DNA

  • Double helix, deoxyribose sugar, bases A-T, G-C.

  • Stores genetic code.

RNA

  • Single strand, ribose sugar, bases A-U, G-C.

  • Copies DNA → helps make proteins.

Chapter 3: The Cell

Basic Processes

  • Metabolism, transport, communication, reproduction.

Cell Structure

  • Plasma membrane: barrier, communication, transport, ID.

  • Cytoplasm: cytosol (fluid), organelles, cytoskeleton.

  • Nucleus: DNA storage, RNA synthesis, control center.

Plasma Membrane

  • Phospholipid bilayer: hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails.

  • Fluid mosaic model: dynamic; proteins, cholesterol, carbs.

  • Proteins: channels, carriers, receptors, enzymes, support, linkers.

  • Cholesterol = stability; glycolipids/proteins = recognition.

  • Drug connections: agonists (mimic), antagonists (block).

  • COVID-19: SARS-CoV-2 binds ACE2 receptor.

Membrane Transport

  • Passive (no energy):

    • Diffusion (solute, high → low).

      • Simple: nonpolar solutes.

      • Facilitated: polar/ions via proteins.

    • Osmosis (water movement).

      • Isotonic: no net movement.

      • Hypertonic: cell shrinks.

      • Hypotonic: cell swells/lyses.

  • Active (requires ATP):

    • Primary (direct use of ATP). Example: Na⁺/K⁺ pump (3 Na⁺ out, 2 K⁺ in).

    • Secondary (uses gradient energy).

    • Vesicular transport:

      • Endocytosis (into cell: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated).

      • Exocytosis (out).

      • Transcytosis (through).

  • Membrane potential: inside negative relative to ECF.

Cell Cycle

  • Interphase → growth, DNA replication.

  • Mitosis → division of nucleus.

  • Cytokinesis → cytoplasm divides.

Spindle Poisons

  • Block spindle assembly/disassembly (used as drugs).

  • Examples:

    • Vinca alkaloids (periwinkle, cancer).

    • Colchicine (crocus, gout).

    • Griseofulvin (mold, antifungal).

    • Taxanes (yew, cancer).

Cell Cycle Control & Cancer

  • Checkpoints regulate cycle (ex: G1).

  • Signals: nutrients, growth factors, density, anchorage.

  • Apoptosis = programmed cell death (normal + protective).

    • Example: removing webbing in fetal fingers/toes.

  • Tumors = uncontrolled cell division.

    • Benign = stays in place.

    • Malignant (cancerous) spreads (not detailed in slides).