Untitled Flashcards Set

Chapter 9 

Purpose of Consultation

Personal Trainers (PTs) assess, motivate, educate, and train clients to improve their health and fitness. Consultations serve as essential screening tools to evaluate a client’s health status and create an effective exercise plan.

MATER Approach:

1. Motivate – Encourage performance and adherence.

2. Assess – Evaluate health and fitness status.

3. Train – Ensure safe and effective training.

4. Educate – Help clients become informed consumers.

5. Refer – Direct clients to healthcare professionals when needed.

Steps in the Client Consultation Process

1. Conduct an interview to assess compatibility and set goals.

2. Have the client complete health appraisal forms.

3. Evaluate risk factors for chronic diseases.

4. Assess and interpret results.

5. Refer to medical professionals if needed.

6. Obtain medical clearance and recommendations.

Step 1: Client Interview

Assessing Client-Trainer Compatibility

• Explain services, experience, and certifications.

• Define roles, boundaries, and expectations.

• Discuss client goals using the SMART method:

Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound

Client-Trainer Agreement (Contract)

• Outlines services, expectations, cost, policies, and termination.

• Becomes a legally valid document once signed.

Step 2: Risk Factor Screening

Screen for chronic diseases, including:

• Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

• Pulmonary and Metabolic Diseases

• Orthopedic Issues

Common Screening Instruments:

1. Self-Recall of Symptoms

   • ✅ Cost-effective, easy to administer.

   • ❌ Only assesses safety of exercise, not risk factors.

2. Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q)

   • Evaluates moderate to vigorous exercise suitability.

3. Health/Medical Questionnaire

   • More detailed, includes risk factors and family history.

Additional Screening Methods:

• Lifestyle Inventories (diet, stress, activity level).

• Informed Consent (details risks, benefits, and responsibilities).

• Release of Risk (legal waiver of injury claims).

Special Considerations for Children (7-14 years old)

• Require a pre-participation physical exam.

• Parents cannot sign liability waivers for children.

• High risk but benefits include better body composition and self-esteem.

Step 3: Evaluate Risk Factors

Risk factors should be assessed using a systematic approach to determine the client’s overall health status and potential concerns before beginning an exercise program. Some of the key factors to evaluate include:

1. Cardiovascular Risk Factors

• Family History: Early onset of heart disease in immediate relatives (before 55 years in men, 65 years in women).

• Hypertension: Blood pressure above 140/90 mmHg on multiple occasions.

• High Cholesterol Levels: LDL > 130 mg/dl, HDL < 40 mg/dl, or total cholesterol > 200 mg/dl.

• Smoking: Current smoker or quit within the last six months.

• Physical Inactivity: Sedentary lifestyle with minimal physical activity.

2. Metabolic and Endocrine Risk Factors

• Diabetes: Type 1 or Type 2, with fasting glucose levels > 126 mg/dl.

• Obesity: BMI > 30 or waist circumference > 102 cm (men) or > 88 cm (women).

• Thyroid Disorders: Hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism impacting metabolic rates.

3. Pulmonary and Respiratory Risk Factors

• Asthma: History of exercise-induced bronchospasm.

• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): Limited breathing capacity affecting endurance.

• Sleep Apnea: Disruptions in sleep leading to fatigue and cardiovascular risks.

4. Orthopedic and Musculoskeletal Risk Factors

• Joint Issues: History of arthritis, osteoporosis, or recurring joint pain.

• Previous Injuries: Past fractures, ligament tears, or spinal issues affecting mobility.

• Postural Problems: Spinal misalignment, scoliosis, or significant muscle imbalances.

5. Lifestyle and Behavioral Risk Factors

• Dietary Habits: High intake of processed foods, excessive alcohol consumption.

• Stress Levels: Chronic stress leading to hormonal imbalances and cardiovascular risk.

• Medication Use: Any prescriptions that may impact heart rate, blood pressure, or metabolism.

After evaluating these risk factors, the personal trainer should classify the client into low, moderate, or high-risk categories. Clients in the moderate-to-high-risk category should receive medical clearance before engaging in vigorous exercise.

Step 4: Assess and Interpret Results

• Identify risk factors based on screening questionnaires.

• Determine exercise intensity suitability.

• If needed, refer to a physician before starting a program.

Step 5: Referral Process

If risk factors are present:

• Use a Physician Referral Form to inform doctors.

• Allow doctors to provide recommendations for exercise programs.

Step 6: Program Recommendations

Based on the risk level, a client is placed in one of three programs:

1. Unsupervised Program

   • Suitable for healthy individuals.

   • Clients exercise independently or with occasional PT check-ins.

2. Supervised Program

   • For clients with minor health conditions but can still participate safely.

   • Supervised by a certified professional (CPT).

3. Medically Supervised Program

   • For high-risk clients.

   • Requires constant monitoring by health professionals (e.g., clinical setting).

Important Legal Considerations

• Keep detailed records of client information and screenings.

• Always refer clients to a doctor if uncertain about any risk factors.

• Ensure clients fully understand risks and benefits before beginning exercise.

BMI = Weight (Kg)/ Height (m)^2

10- Fitness Assessment Selection & Administration

Purpose of Fitness Assessment

• Establish baseline data for goal setting

• Track progress over time

• Identify strengths & weaknesses

• Set short, intermediate, & long-term goals

• Document progress for comparison with norms (e.g., ACSM guidelines)

Evaluation of Assessments

Formative vs. Summative Assessments

• Formative: Ongoing assessment with specific test protocols, allows adjustments

• Summative: Final evaluation of progress over a set period (training cycle, class, season)

Reliability (Consistency of Test Results)

• Test-Retest Reliability: Repeating the test on the same person/group within 1-3 days

• Intra-Rater Reliability: Tester must administer the test the same way every time

• Key Note: A trainer can be reliable but not accurate!

Validity (Does the Test Measure What It Claims To?)

• Face Validity: Appears to test what it should (e.g., 1-RM → Muscular Strength)

• Content Validity: Experts confirm the test covers all relevant areas (e.g., volleyball tests should assess jumping ability)

• Construct Validity: Can distinguish between different performance levels (e.g., athlete vs. general population)

• Criterion-Related Validity: Field-based tests validated against laboratory tests

Direct vs. Indirect Measures

• Direct: Autopsy, Biopsy

• Indirect: BMI, Skinfolds, DXA, BIA

Factors Affecting Validity & Reliability

• Client Factors: Health, training status, age, sex

• Trainer Factors: Experience, following protocol

• Equipment: Calibration & maintenance

• Environment:

  • High Heat/Humidity: Affects endurance testing

  • Altitude (>1,900 ft): Requires 9-12 days to adjust

  • Pollution: Air Quality Index impacts performance

• Test Setting: Reduce distractions and anxiety

Fitness Assessment Process

Test Preparation

• Educate client on test details & expectations

• Consider risk-to-benefit ratio

• Ensure proper facilities & calibrated equipment

• Client readiness:

  • Adequate sleep

  • Proper dietary intake & hydration

  • Medication awareness

  • Proper attire

Test Implementation & Sequencing

General Fitness Testing Order:

1. Resting Measures (HR, BP, Body Composition)

2. Non-Fatiguing Tests (Flexibility, Balance)

3. Muscular Strength Tests (1-RM)

4. Muscular Endurance Tests (YMCA Bench, Curl-Up)

5. Submaximal Aerobic Tests (Step-Test, 12-Min Walk/Run)

Athletic Performance Testing Order:

1. Resting Measures (HR, BP, Body Comp)

2. Non-Fatiguing Tests (Flexibility, Vertical Jump)

3. Agility Tests (T-Test)

4. Maximum Power/Strength (1-RM)

5. Sprint Tests (40-Yard Dash)

6. Muscular Endurance Tests (1-Min Sit-Ups)

7. Anaerobic Capacity Tests (Wingate, 300-Yard Shuttle)

8. Aerobic Capacity Tests (GXT, 1.5-Mile Run)

⚠ Note: Many tests are fatiguing and can be split over 2 days!

Indications for Terminating Exercise Testing

• Chest pain, dizziness, nausea

• Abnormal BP response

• Shortness of breath

• Equipment failure

• Client requests to stop

Reviewing Assessment Results

Comparison Methods

1. Norm-Referenced Standards:

   • Compare scores to a similar population

   • Expressed as a percentile rank

   • Example: 50% percentile ≠ failing! It means they performed better than 50% of the norm group

2. Criterion-Referenced Standards:

   • Compares results to health-based benchmarks (e.g., CVD risk factors)

Reassessment

• Conduct periodic retesting

• Track progress & adjust program accordingly

11- Fitness Testing Protocols and Norms

Heart Rate

Equipment: Stopwatch, Stethoscope, HR Monitor, Radial Pulse, Carotid Pulse
Factors Influencing HR:

• Tobacco: ↑ Resting HR; ↑ or ← Exercise HR

• Caffeine: ↑ or ← Resting & Exercise HR

• Temperature: ↑ HR in hot environments

• Altitude: ↑ HR above 4,000 ft

• Stress & Digestion: ↑ HR

• Body Position: ↓ HR when supine, ↑ HR when moving to sitting/standing

• Time of Day: ↓ HR in the morning, ↑ or ← in afternoon/evening

• Medications: Variable

Blood Pressure

Equipment: Sphygmomanometer, BP Cuff, Stethoscope
Common Errors:

• Backward stethoscope

• Bell under the cuff

• Dial not at eye level

• Cuff too low on arm

How to Measure BP

1. Seat subject for 5 min

2. Place cuff 1 inch above brachial artery

3. Position: Palm up, feet flat, stethoscope on antecubital space

4. Inflate:

   • 160 mmHg OR

   • 20 mmHg above expected BP

5. Release pressure at 2-3 mmHg/sec

6. First Korotkoff sound = SBP, Disappearance = DBP

7. Record BP in even numbers

8. Take 2 measurements, ensuring SBP & DBP differ by ≤5 mmHg

9. Allow 2 min between readings

Body Composition

Anthropometry

• Height: Barefoot, standing erect, heels together, deep breath (cm)

• Weight: Remove heavy clothing/jewelry (kg)

• BMI Formula: Weight (kg) / Height² (m²)

Skinfold Measurement

Equipment: Caliper, Tape, Marker
General Rules:

• Right side of the body

• No lotions or wet skin

• Measure & mark site

• Firm grasp, perpendicular measurement

Skinfold Sites

• Chest: Diagonal fold

  • Men: Halfway between anterior axillary line & nipple

  • Women: 1/3 of the way

• Mid-Axilla: Vertical fold at the xiphoid process

• Triceps: Vertical fold, posterior mid-upper arm

• Subscapula: Diagonal fold below the shoulder blade

• Abdomen: Vertical fold, 2cm from umbilicus

• Suprailium: Diagonal fold above iliac crest

• Thigh: Vertical fold, midway between hip & knee

• Medial Calf: Vertical fold, medial lower leg

Waist-to-Hip Ratio

• Waist: Smallest girth of abdomen

• Hip: Largest girth of buttocks

• Tape: Parallel to ground, snug fit

Cardiovascular Endurance Tests

Ergometer Protocol

1. Check Equipment: Calibrated, seat height correct

2. Warm-up: Maintain position, establish cadence

3. Monitor Test:

   • Work Rate (kg/m/min or Watts)

   • HR steady-state = Last 15-20 sec of each minute

   • Measure BP & RPE at stage end

4. Measure the outcome variables: measure HR at the end of each stage or until; steady-state

5. Cool Down: 4 min active/passive

YMCA Cycle Test

• Equipment: Cycle ergometer, Metronome, Stopwatch, HR/BP equipment

• Cadence: 50 rpm throughout

• 3-minute stages: 220- age 

  • HR taken at min 2 & 3

  • Continue if HR varies >5 bpm

• Stop When: HR reaches 85% age-predicted max

• Plot WR at Heart rate max

VO2max = [(10.8 x Predicted Max W) / BW in kg] + 7

Astrand-Ryhming Test

• Cadence: 50 rpm, 6-min constant workload

• Work Rate:

  • Males, untrained = 300/600 kg/m/min

  • Males, trained = 600/900 kg/m/min

  • Females, untrained = 300/450 kg/m/min

  • Females, trained = 450/600 kg/m/min

• HR Monitoring:

  • If <120 bpm after 2 min → ↑ WR

  • If >120 bpm → Continue for 6 min

  • Take avg HR at min 5 & 6

YMCA Step Test

• Step Height: 12-inch (30cm) box

• Cadence: 96 bpm (24 steps/min)

• Duration: 3 min

• Post-Test HR: Taken immediately after for 1 min

Distance Tests

• 12-Minute Run/Walk:

  • Measure distance covered in meters

  • VO₂ Max = (0.0268 × Distance) - 11.3

• 1.5-Mile Run:

  • Measure time in minutes

  • VO₂ Max = 88.02 – (0.1656 × BW) – (2.76 × Time) + (3.716 × Gender)

●Untrained males

○(0.046 x H) – (0.021 x A) – 4.31

■Mine = 41.7; true value = 39.8

●Untrained females

○(0.046 x H) – (0.021 x A) – 4.93

●Aerobically trained males

○(27.387 x BW) + (26.634 x H) – (27.572 x A) + (26.161 x D) + (114.904 x I) + (506.752 x Y) – 4609.791

●Aerobically trained females

○(18.528 x BW) + (11.993 x H) – (17.197 x A) + (23.522 x D) + (62.118 x I) + (278.262 x Y) – 1375.878

●H=height(cm); A=age(yr); D=duration of training(hrs/wk); I=intensity(RPE scale); Y= # of years training

Muscular Strength & Endurance

1-RM Bench Press

1. Warm-up 5-10 reps (40-60% estimated 1-RM)

2. 1-min rest, ↑ weight for 3-5 reps (~5-20% increase)

3. 2-min rest, estimate near-max weight for 2-3 reps

4. 2-4 min rest, attempt 1-RM

5. Adjust weight if necessary (±2.5-10%)

YMCA Bench Press Test

• Weight: 80 lbs (men), 35 lbs (women)

• Metronome: 60 bpm (30 reps/min)

• Terminate When: Cannot maintain cadence

Partial Curl-Up Test

• Setup: 2 pieces of 4” tape, 10cm apart

• Metronome: 50 bpm (25 reps/min)

• Max: 25 reps

Prone Double Straight-Leg Raise

• Measures: Lower back endurance

• Position: Prone, hands under forehead, legs extended

• Lift Legs: Hold as long as possible

• Record Time (sec)

Flexibility Tests

Sit & Reach

• Box Zero Point: 26 cm

• Reach Score: Distance reached past toes

YMCA Sit & Reach

• Tape Placement: 15-inch mark

• Heels: Touching tape (~10-12 inches apart)

• Zero Point: 15-inch mark

Chapter 12

Flexibility

• The ability of a joint to move freely through a full range of motion (ROM).

• Timing: Before exercise for dynamic activities (e.g., basketball), after for less dynamic ones (e.g., cycling).

Benefits

• Improves movement efficiency, prevents muscular imbalances, enhances coordination, and reduces injury risk.

• Tight quadriceps, iliopsoas, and back muscles can lead to lower back pain.

Factors Affecting Flexibility

• Joint Structure: Hinge (elbow) vs. ball-and-socket (shoulder).

• Muscle & Connective Tissue: Stiff muscles reduce ROM; compliant muscles increase it.

• Hyperlaxity: Excessive ROM, requires caution.

• Age: Decreases with time. Sex: Females tend to be more flexible.

• Temperature: Higher body temp improves flexibility. Activity Level: Active individuals are more flexible.

• Resistance Training: Can increase or decrease ROM based on execution.

Tissue Adaptations

• Elasticity: Temporary lengthening of muscles.

• Plasticity: Permanent elongation with stretching.

• To maximize plasticity: Stretch to mild discomfort, hold for a time, and ensure warm muscles.

Types of Flexibility Training

• Ballistic Stretching: Uses momentum, risky due to stretch reflex.

• Static Stretching: Held for ~30 sec, may negatively impact dynamic activities.

• Dynamic Stretching (mobility routine): Functional movements, avoids bouncing.

• PNF Stretching: Most effective for increasing ROM (hold-relax method), but higher injury risk.

• Active vs. Passive Stretching: Active uses self-applied force, and passive uses a partner/device.

Warm-Up

• Passive: Showers, heating pads, massage (effective,but not practical).

• General: Jogging, cycling, jump rope (increases HR, blood flow, muscle temp).

• Specific: Activity-specific movements, aids mental prep and help complex skills be performed.

• Effects: Increased blood flow, nerve sensitivity, ROM; decreased muscle viscosity.

• Stretching alone does not increase core temperature.

• Guidelines: Warm-up for 5-15 minutes, should not cause fatigue.

Body Weight & Stability Ball Exercises

• Body Weight Training: Uses own weight for resistance, good for endurance, not for max strength.

• Stability Ball Training: Originally for rehab, now in sports/elderly fitness, enhances core challenge.

Research on Stability Balls

• Core Activation: Conflicting evidence on oblique and spinal muscle activation.

• Core Training Benefits: Strengthens spinal stabilizers, improves posture, balance, proprioception, and flexibility (useful for pregnancy).

• Disadvantages: Doesn’t significantly improve sports performance or hypertrophy.

Stability Ball Safety

• Proper technique is critical.

• Ball size matters—incorrect placement reduces effectiveness.

Suspension Training & Manual Resistance

• Suspension Training: Adjustable straps for resistance variation.

• Manual Resistance Training: Partner-applied resistance.

Stability Balls & Sport Performance

• Anecdotal evidence suggests core strength improves athletic performance.

• Specificity: Useful for sports requiring balance on unstable surfaces (e.g., surfing).

• Limitations: Cannot train at intensities ≥80% of max effort.

Chapters 13 & 15

Chapter 13: Resistance Training Techniques

Importance of Proper Technique

• Safety First: Supervise and monitor exercise technique to prevent injuries.

• Teach Proper Form: Never assume a client knows the correct technique.

• Demonstrate: Show proper form before having a client perform an exercise.

Hand Grip Types

• Pronated Grip: Palms down, knuckles up.

• Supinated Grip: Palms up, knuckles down.

• Alternated Grip: One hand supinated, one hand pronated.

• Hook Grip: Thumb wrapped under fingers; used for Olympic lifts to improve grip strength.

Stable Body Positioning

• 5-Point Body Contact (Supine Lifts):

  1. Back of head

  2. Upper back and shoulders

  3. Lower back and buttocks

  4. Right foot

  5. Left foot

• 5-Point Body Contact (Prone Lifts):

  1. Chin or cheek

  2. Chest and stomach

  3. Hips and front of thighs

  4. Right hand

  5. Left hand

• Standing Exercises: Feet between hip & shoulder-width apart, flat on the floor, weight in heels. Women typically have a wider stance than men.

Range of Motion (ROM) & Speed

• Full ROM maximizes exercise benefits and maintains flexibility.

• Speed depends on exercise type:

  • Traditional exercises: Controlled pace.

  • Power exercises: Performed explosively.

Breathing Considerations

• General Rule:

  • Exhale during the sticking point (hardest part).

  • Inhale during the easier phase (eccentric).

• Valsalva Maneuver: Holding breath while exerting force.

  • Pros: Increases intra-abdominal pressure, stabilizing spine.

  • Cons: Reduces venous return, increases BP, risk of fainting.

Weightlifting Belt Use

• Used for maximal structural lifts (e.g., squat, deadlifts).

• Not recommended for submaximal lifts, as it impedes core muscle development.

Spotting Techniques

• Overhead/Over-Face Exercises (Barbell): Spotter uses an alternated grip inside the client’s hands.

• Dumbbell Exercises: Spot near wrists (not elbows) for safety.

• Communication is key: Client should signal readiness before unracking and re-racking weights.

• Power Lifts (Olympic Lifts): Should NOT be spotted. Lifters must learn how to safely "miss" a lift.

Open vs. Closed Kinetic Chain Exercises

• Open Kinetic Chain: Distal body part is free-moving.

  • E.g., Leg extensions, biceps curls.

• Closed Kinetic Chain: Distal body part is fixed.

  • E.g., Squats, push-ups.

Use of Collars & Locks

• Essential for beginners to prevent plates from sliding.

Knees Over Toes Debate

• Restricting knees from moving past toes can increase lower back stress.

• A slight knee movement past the toes is not inherently bad and may be necessary for proper mechanics.

Chapter 15: Resistance Training Program Design

General Training Principles

• Specificity: Training must match desired outcomes (e.g., muscle type, energy system).

• Overload: Stress must exceed normal levels to see progress.

• Variation: Manipulating sets, reps, load, tempo, and rest to ensure adaptation.

• Periodization: Structured changes in training variables over time.

• Progression: Continuous increases in training intensity over time.

Key Program Components

1. Initial Consultation & Fitness Evaluation

   • Determine client’s resistance training experience.

   • Assess training frequency, intensity, and exercise proficiency.

2. Exercise Choice

   • Match exercises to client needs.

   • Beginners: 1 exercise per muscle; Intermediate: 2-3 exercises; Advanced: 3+ exercises.

3. Training Frequency

   • Beginners: 2-3x/week (full body).

   • Intermediate/Advanced: 3-7x/week (split routines).

4. Exercise Order

   • Power → Core → Assistance.

   • Multi-joint → Single-joint.

   • Target 1 goal -> less specific movement patterns 

Types of Exercises

• Core Exercises (multi-joint, large muscle groups): (Main part of the program)

  • Squat, deadlift, bench press, lat pulldown, seated row.

• Structural Exercises (require torso stability):

  • Squat, deadlift, snatch.

• Assistance Exercises (single-joint, smaller muscle groups): (Secondary Emphasis)

  • Leg curl, biceps curl, lateral raises.

Training Load & Volume

• Load = % of 1RM.

  • Inversely related to reps.

• Volume = Sets × Reps × Load(weight). MUST USE ALL 3

• Repetition Ranges:

  • Muscular Endurance: ≥15 reps, low weight.

  • Hypertrophy: 8-12 reps (moderate to heavy loads).

  • Strength: ≤6 reps (heavy loads, multiple sets).

  • Power: 1-6 reps (fast, explosive movements).

• 2-for-2 Rule: If a client performs ≥2 reps more than their target for 2 consecutive sessions, increase weight.

When should you increase the load?

1. RM testing

2. 2 for 2 rule 

Rest Periods

• Strength/Power: 2-5 minutes.

• Hypertrophy: 30-90 seconds.

• Endurance: ≤30 seconds.

Training Variation

• Prevents plateaus and overtraining.

• Within-Session Variations:

  • Compound Set: Two different exercises for the same muscle group (no rest).

  • Super Set: Two exercises for opposing muscle groups (no rest).

  • Rest-Pause: Brief rests within a set to extend time under tension.

  • Pyramiding: Increasing/decreasing loads across sets.

  • Vascular Occlusion: Holding an isometric contraction before reps.

• Within-Week Variations:

  • Alternating intensities (e.g., 75% 1RM one day, 68% 1RM another).

Periodization Models

1. Linear Periodization: Gradual increase in intensity, decrease in volume.

   • Best for beginners.

2. Nonlinear (Undulating) Periodization: Frequent fluctuations in load/volume.

   • Best for intermediate/advanced athletes.

3. Macrocycle (Yearly Plan) → Mesocycle (Weeks to Months) → Microcycle (Days to Weeks).

Program Examples

• Beginner (3x/Week, Full Body)

  • Squat, bench press, lat pulldown, leg curl, biceps curl.

• Intermediate (4x/Week, Split Routine)

  • Upper/lower body splits.

• Advanced (6x/Week, Push-Pull-Legs Split)

  • Alternating heavy/light days.

Chapter 14: Principles of Personal Training

Safe Participation Considerations

1. Proper Hydration

   • Essential for regulating body temperature, energy metabolism, and joint lubrication.

   • Fluid recommendations:

     • Consume ~5 to 7 ml per kg body weight at least 4 hours before exercise.

     • Weigh before and after exercise—replace each lb lost with 20-24 oz (~0.6-0.7L) of fluid.

     • Prolonged exercise (>1 hr) requires electrolyte replenishment.

2. Appropriate Clothing & Footwear

   • Loose-fitting, breathable clothing.

   • Shoes should provide cushioning, stability, flexibility, and be replaced after 300-500 miles of use.

   • Special Considerations:

     • Flat shoes for weightlifting (improves mobility, prevents excessive trunk flexion).

     • High-heeled tennis shoes for those with poor ankle mobility (temporary use).

     • Barefoot training may help high-impact runners.

3. Warm-up & Cool-down

   • 5-15 min warm-up to gradually elevate HR.

   • 5-15 min cool-down to reduce HR safely.

   • Stretching post-exercise to improve flexibility.

4. Exercise Prescription Variables

   • Frequency, Intensity, Duration must be tailored to individual fitness levels.

5. Proper Breathing Techniques

   • Should be relaxed and regular, adapting to intensity levels.

Cardio Equipment & Training

Treadmill

• Primary muscles: Quads, hamstrings, glutes, iliopsoas, tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius, soleus.

• Advantages:

  • Controlled speed & incline.

  • Lower impact than outdoor running.

  • Handrail support for beginners.

• Disadvantages:

  • Lack of air resistance (reduces energy demand).

  • Lower energy cost than outdoor running.

• Stepping On:

  • Hold handrails while straddling the belt.

  • Start at 1.0 mph, step onto the belt, adjust speed gradually.

Stair Climber

• Primary muscles: Quads, hamstrings, glutes, erector spinae, gastrocnemius, soleus.

• Advantages:

  • Lower knee stress than real stairs (4x higher force on normal stairs).

• Disadvantages:

  • Fixed step height, unsuitable for beginners.

• Handrail Usage Reductions:

  • Light grip → Fingertips → One hand → One finger.

Elliptical Trainer

• Primary muscles: Quads, hamstrings, glutes, iliopsoas, tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius, soleus.

• Advantages:

  • Low impact, full-body engagement, increased calorie burn.

• Key Technique:

  • Keep full foot in contact with the pedals.

  • Avoid excessive knee movement past toes.

Stationary Bike

• Primary muscles: Quads, hamstrings, glutes, tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius, soleus.

• Advantages:

  • Non-weight bearing, good for orthopedic issues.

• Disadvantages:

  • Local muscle fatigue can limit cardiovascular benefits.

• Seat Adjustment:

  • Leg should be nearly extended (5% flexion) at the lowest pedal position.

Rowing Machine

• Primary muscles: Upper and lower body, including biceps, deltoids, traps, lats, abs, and erector spinae.

• Advantages:

  • Engages both upper & lower body, non-weight bearing.

• Common Issues:

  • Beginners use too much upper body.

  • Individuals with back pain tend to round their back.

Running & Walking

• Primary muscles: Quads, hamstrings, glutes, iliopsoas, tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius, soleus.

• Technique:

  • Posture: Run/walk tall, shoulders relaxed, body over hips.

  • Foot Strike: Heel → ball of foot → push-off.

  • Arm Action: Should assist, but excessive movement reduces efficiency.

  • Stride Length/Frequency: Plyometrics improve both.

Choosing a Cardio Modality

• Consider:

  • Orthopedic limitations (e.g., low-impact for arthritis).

  • Equipment availability.

  • Client’s fitness goals.

  • Proper technique to prevent injury.

Chapter 16: Aerobic Program Design

Fundamental Principles

• Specificity: Training must match the goal.

• FITT Principle:

  • Frequency: 2-5 sessions/week.

  • Intensity: 50-85% HRR.

  • Time: 20-60 min/session.

  • Type: Running, cycling, swimming, etc.

Exercise Frequency & Intensity

• Beginner: 2-5 days/week.

• Intermediate: 3-5 days/week.

• Advanced: >5 days/week.

• Intensity Classification:

  • Inactive: 30% HRR.

  • General population: 50-85% HRR.

  • Advanced: 85%+ HRR.

Heart Rate & Intensity Measures

• Age-Predicted Max HR (APMHR)

  • 220 – Age = APMHR.

  • Target HR Range: 50-85% HRR.

  • Karvonen Formula:

    • HRR = APMHR – RHR.

    • Target HRR = (HRR × intensity %) + RHR.

• Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE):

  • Accounts for respiration, exertion, emotional response.

Exercise Duration

• Inverse relationship with intensity.

• Beginner:

  • 75 min/week vigorous (3 × 25 min OR 2 × 40 min).

  • 150 min/week moderate (3 × 50 min OR 5 × 30 min).

• Intermediate:

  • 75-150 min/week vigorous (3-5 × 25-50 min).

  • 150-300 min/week moderate (3-7 × 30-50 min).

• Advanced:

  • May exceed 300 min/week.

Aerobic Training Programs

Long-Slow Distance (LSD)

• Lower intensity, longer duration (30-120 min, ≤2 days/week).

• Below lactate threshold.

Pace/Tempo Training

• Threshold training (1-2 days/week).

• Steady: 20-30 min at or above lactate threshold.

• Intermittent: 3-5 min bursts with 30-90s rest.

High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)

• 90-100% HRR work periods, <50% HRR rest.

• Work-rest ratios: 1:1 to 1:3.

• Types:

  • Short HIIT (30-60 sec bursts, fast glycolysis).

  • Long HIIT (1:30-4 min bursts, slow glycolysis).

  • Sprint (5-30 sec max effort, creatine-phosphate system).

Cross & Concurrent Training

• Cross-Training (CT):

  • Combines multiple cardio modes (e.g., running + cycling).

  • Helps reduce overuse injuries.

• Concurrent Training (CT):

  • Combines resistance training & endurance training.

  • Requires careful balance to prevent interference effects.

Maintenance vs. Improvement Programs

• Improvement:

  • Progressively increases frequency, intensity, or duration (≤10% per week).

• Maintenance:

  • Maintains current fitness level (minimum 2x/week).

Use variety to sustain motivation.