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Blood Sytems

Function of the Blood System

Blood is a transport system for

• nutrients

• gases

• platelets

• hormones

• wastes

• white blood cells

Examples of how blood is a transport system:

• Blood transports hormones from their site of secretion to a distant site.

Blood Volume Contains the Following Components

Formed Elements (45% of blood volume)

• Erythrocytes

• Leukocytes

• Thrombocytes

Plasma

• Clear fluid that holds cells in suspension (55% of blood volume)

Blood Cells

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

• Formed in bone marrow

• Live approximately 120 days

• Hemoglobin carries oxygen

• Erythropoietin is a hormone secreted by the kidneys

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Granulocytes (Polymorphonuclear leukocytes)

Basophils

• Histamine is released during allergic reactions.

Neutrophils

• Phagocytes that ingest and destroy bacteria at sites of infection.

Agranulocytes (without granules)

Monocytes

• Become macrophages

Lymphocytes

• Circulate in the bloodstream and lymphatic tissue.

• Produce antibodies.

Thrombocytes (Platelets)

• thromb/o = clotting

• Formed in red bone marrow

• Function: blood clotting

Plasma

• 55% of blood volume

• Contains water, dissolved proteins, sugar, wastes, salts, and hormones.

Plasma Proteins

• Albumin maintains proper concentration of water

• Globulins: alpha, beta, gamma

• Fibrinogen—clotting protein

• Prothrombin—clotting protein

Blood Clotting Definitions

• Thrombus = blood clot

• Agglutination = clumping of blood cells

Word Parts

Pathological Conditions

Anemia

Iron Deficiency Anemia

• Lack of iron

Pernicious Anemia

• Lack of mature erythrocytes due to inability to absorb Vitamin B₁₂.

Sickle Cell Anemia

• Cells can clump together.

Hemolytic Anemia

• Can be hereditary or autoimmune.

Purpura

• Caused by platelet deficiency.

• Treatment: splenectomy or glucocorticoids.

Leukemia

• Increase in malignant white blood cells.

Thrombocytopenia

• Decrease in platelet cells.

• Causes excessive bleeding.

Laboratory Tests

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

Determines:

• RBCs

• WBCs

• Platelets

• hemoglobin

• hematocrit

• red cell indices

Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT)

• Measures factors acting intrinsically in coagulation.

Prothrombin Time (PT)

• Used to monitor patients taking anticoagulant drugs.

Hematocrit

• Percentage of red blood cells in a volume of blood.

Blood Types

Blood Types Patient Can Receive

Blood Types Patient Cannot Receive

Receiving the Wrong Blood Type

• Antigens in donor blood react with antibodies in the recipient's blood.

• Blood will agglutinate (clump).

Abbreviations

Lynphatic. Sytem

• BMT = Bone Marrow Transplant

• CBC = Complete Blood Count

• Hct = Hematocrit

• Hgb = Hemoglobin

• PTT = Partial Thromboplastin Time

• PT = Prothrombin Time

• RBC = Red Blood Cell

• WBC = White Blood Cell

Lymphatic System

Purpose

• To transport needed fluid and proteins that have leaked out of the blood capillaries back to the bloodstream.

• Absorb fats (lipids) from the small intestines into the bloodstream.

• Plays a role with the immune system.

• Filters out disease-causing organisms.

Anatomy

Lymph

Contains:

• Water

• Salts

• proteins

• Waste products, such as urea and carbon dioxide

Lymph Nodes

• Produce lymphocytes, which are your B cells and macrophages.

• Become enlarged (swollen) when bacteria are present.

• Two types of lymphocytes:

  • B cells

  • T cells

Location of Lymph Nodes

• Cervical

• Axillary

• Mediastinal

• Mesenteric (intestinal)

• Para-aortic (lumbar)

• Inguinal

• Tonsils and adenoids

Lymph Ducts

Right Lymphatic Duct

Drains the:

• right chest

• right arm

• right side of the head and neck

Thoracic Duct

Drains the:

• lower body

• left side of the head and neck

• left arm

• left chest

Lymphatic Organs

Spleen

• Destroys old red blood cells (erythrocytes)

• Filters blood

• Activates lymphocytes

• Stores blood

Thymus Gland

• Located between the lungs

• Becomes smaller (atrophies) with age

• Important in development of the immune system

• T cells learn immune tolerance (self-tolerance)

Immune System

Types of Immunity

Natural Immunity

• Resistance present at birth

• No immunological memory

Adaptive Immunity

• Lymphocytes (T and B cells) are part of adaptive immunity.

• B cells produce antibodies against specific antigens.

Examples of Adaptive Immunity

Vaccinations

• Injection of a killed pathogen that stimulates antibody production without having the disease.

Antitoxins

• Ready-made antibodies to neutralize poison or toxin.

Maternal Antibodies

• Infants receive maternal antibodies through the placenta and breast milk.

Components of Adaptive Immunity

Humoral Immunity

• Involves B cells or B lymphocytes.

• B cells become plasma cells.

Cell-Mediated Immunity

• Involves T cells or T lymphocytes.

Cytotoxic T Cells

• Destroy (kill) infected cells.

Helper T Cells

• Stimulate B cells to make antibodies.

• Stimulate T cells to attack antigens.

Suppressor T Cells

• Inhibit B and T cells.

Other

Complement System

• Group of proteins that help antibodies destroy their targets.

Pathological Conditions

AIDS

• Caused by HIV

• HIV suppresses the cell-mediated immune response.

• Opportunistic infections occur because of decreased resistance.

Opportunistic Infections

Fungal

• Yeast infection (candidiasis)

Viral

• Herpes simplex

Bacterial

• Pneumocystis pneumonia causes productive cough

Symptoms of HIV

• Lymphadenopathy

• Neurological disease

• Oral candidiasis (thrush)

• Night sweats

• Weight loss

• Opportunistic infections

Lymphoma

Hodgkin Disease

• Malignant tumor of the spleen and lymph nodes.

Non-Hodgkin Disease

• Generally treated with chemotherapy.

Laboratory Tests

ELISA

• Detects infection with HIV

Western Blot

• Confirms HIV infection.

Word Definitions

Lymphangiogram

• X-ray record of lymph vessels after contrast dye.

Lymphoma

• Malignant tumor of lymph tissue.

Hypersplenism

• Condition of excessive spleen activity.

Abbreviations

• AIDS – Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

• CMV – Cytomegalovirus

• ELISA – Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay

• HAART – Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy

• HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus

• HSV – Herpes Simplex Virus

• PCP – Pneumocystis Pneumonia

Here is the completed Section 3: Cardiovascular System (Chapter 11) from your worksheet.

Cardiovascular System

Three Types of Blood Vessels

Arteries

• Take blood away from the heart.

Capillaries

• Microscopic blood vessels where gas exchange occurs.

Veins

• Bring blood back to the heart.

• Have valves.

Two Types of Circulation

Systemic Circulation

Blood flows from the left side of the heart to tissue capillaries and then to the right side of the heart.

Pulmonary Circulation

Blood flows from the right side of the heart to the lungs and then to the left side of the heart.

Chambers of the Heart

Right Atrium

• Blood enters here from the body.

Left Atrium

• Blood enters here from the lungs.

Atria

• The two upper chambers of the heart.

Heart Wall & Pericardium

Interatrial Septum

• Separates the two upper chambers.

Myocardium

• Middle muscular layer of the heart wall (thickest).

Valves

Tricuspid Valve

• Between the right atrium and right ventricle.

Mitral Valve

• Between the left atrium and left ventricle.

Aortic Valve

• Between the left ventricle and the aorta.

Blood Flow Through the Heart

Superior & Inferior Vena Cava →

Right Atrium →

Tricuspid Valve →

Right Ventricle →

Pulmonary Valve →

Pulmonary Artery →

Lungs →

Pulmonary Veins →

Left Atrium →

Mitral Valve →

Left Ventricle →

Aortic Valve →

Aorta →

Arteries →

Capillaries →

Veins →

Superior & Inferior Vena Cava

Phases of a Heartbeat

Systole

• Contraction phase

• Blood is pumped into the pulmonary artery and aorta.

Diastole

• Relaxation phase

Conduction System

SA Node

• Initiates (starts) the heartbeat.

Bundle of His

Right & Left Bundle Branches

• Stimulate contraction of the ventricles.

ECG (EKG)

ECG

• Record of the electrical activity of the heart.

P Wave

• Electrical activity spreads over the atria.

QRS Wave

• Electrical activity spreads over the ventricles.

T Wave

• Electrical recovery of the ventricles.

Word Parts

Pathological Conditions

Bradycardia

• Slow heart rate.

Atrial Fibrillation

• Rapid, random, irregular contractions.

Congestive Heart Failure

• Heart cannot pump blood efficiently.

Coronary Artery Disease

• Usually caused by atherosclerosis.

Ischemia

• Blood flow is decreased or stopped.

Myocardial Infarction

• Death of cardiac muscle due to lack of oxygen.

Unstable Angina

• Chest pain at rest.

Embolus

• Material that blocks a blood vessel.

Pericarditis

• Inflammation of the membrane surrounding the heart.

Aneurysm

• Can rupture.

Hypertension

• High blood pressure.

Hypotension

• Low blood pressure.

Laboratory Tests

Lipoproteins

• LDL – Low-density lipoprotein ("bad cholesterol")

• HDL – High-density lipoprotein ("good cholesterol")

Cardiac Biomarkers

• Show evidence of a heart attack.

Ultrasound Procedures

Doppler Ultrasound

• Measures sound waves in blood vessels.

Echocardiography (Echo)

• Shows the structure and function of the heart.

Clinical Procedures

Sphygmomanometer

• Measures blood pressure.

Cardiac Catheterization

• Thin, flexible catheter inserted into the heart.

Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI)

• Balloon-tipped catheter.

Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG)

Pacemaker

• Regulates heartbeat.

Defibrillator

• Delivers a brief discharge of electricity.

Cardioversion

• Restores a normal rhythm.

Abbreviations

Respiratory System

Respiration

• Process of breathing; exchange of air between the lungs and the external environment.

Two Types of Respiration

External Respiration

• Oxygen is inhaled into the lungs.

• Carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the lungs.

Internal Respiration

• Exchange of gases at the cellular level.

Anatomy of the Respiratory System

Nose

• Air enters through the nostrils (nares).

Pharynx

• Nasopharynx – contains adenoids.

• Oropharynx – contains palatine tonsils.

• Laryngopharynx – divides into the larynx and esophagus.

Epiglottis

• Flap of cartilage.

Bronchus

• Leads to each lung.

Lung

• Covered by pleura.

Bronchioles

• Small bronchial branches in the lungs.

Alveolar Sacs

• Exchange of oxygen into the capillaries.

• Carbon dioxide moves out of the capillaries.

Diaphragm

• Contracts and descends during inhalation.

Singular to Plural

• Apex → apices

• Alveolus → alveoli

Word Parts

Diagnostic Terms

Auscultation

• Performed with a stethoscope.

Percussion

• Tapping to determine tissue density.

Rales

• Also called crackles.

Sputum

• Material expelled by coughing.

Upper Airway Disorders

Croup

• Symptoms include barking cough and stridor.

Epistaxis

• Causes: trauma, blood thinners, bleeding disorders.

Pertussis

• Treatment: antibiotics.

Bronchial Disorders

Asthma

• Chronic inflammatory disorder.

• Increased mucus production.

• Triggers include exercise, cold air, allergens, tobacco smoke, pet dander, molds, etc.

• Treatment: bronchodilators and long-acting steroids.

COPD

• General term for chronic obstruction of airflow.

Chronic Bronchitis

• Causes include cigarette smoke.

Lung Disorders

Atelectasis

• Collapse of the alveoli.

Emphysema

• Overexpansion of alveoli.

• May lead to right heart failure.

Lung Cancer

• Malignant tumor.

• Caused primarily by cigarette smoking.

Pneumoconiosis

• Abnormal condition of dust in the lungs.

Pneumonia

• Infection of the alveoli.

• Types include community-acquired, hospital-acquired, and aspiration pneumonia.

Pulmonary Abscess

• Collection of pus.

Pulmonary Edema

• Fluid in the alveoli.

• Maintain upright position.

Pulmonary Embolism

• Blood clot or other material lodges in lung vessels.

Tuberculosis

• Diagnosed with a positive PPD skin test.

Pleural Disorders

Pleural Effusion

• Accumulation of fluid.

Pleuritis (Pleurisy)

• Inflammation of the pleura.

Pneumothorax

• Causes include emphysema, trauma, carcinoma, lung abscess, or tuberculosis.

Clinical Procedures

Chest X-ray

• Radiographic image of the thoracic cavity.

Bronchoscopy

• Fiberoptic visual examination.

Endotracheal Intubation

• Placement of a tube.

Pulmonary Function Tests (PFTs)

• Measure lung ventilation.

• Monitor patients with chronic respiratory disease.

• Assess lung function before surgery.

Thoracentesis

• Surgical puncture to remove pleural fluid.

Thoracotomy

• Surgical incision into the chest.

Tracheostomy

• May be temporary or permanent.

Thoracostomy

• Tube inserted into the pleural space.

• Removes air (pneumothorax), fluid (pleural effusion), or pus (empyema).

Abbreviations

• COPD – Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

• CPR – Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

• CXR – Chest X-ray

• DOE – Dyspnea on Exertion

• FVC – Forced Vital Capacity

• ICU – Intensive Care Unit

• LLL – Left Lower Lobe

• MRI – Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• LUL – Left Upper Lobe

• MDI – Metered Dose Inhaler

• PFT – Pulmonary Function Tests

• RLL – Right Lower Lobe

• RUL – Right Upper Lobe

• SOB – Shortness of Breath

• TB – Tuberculosis

• URI – Upper Respiratory Infection

• AF / AFib – Atrial Fibrillation

• AV – Atrioventricular

• BP – Blood Pressure

• CABG – Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting

• CAD – Coronary Artery Disease

• Cath – Catheterization

• CHF – Congestive Heart Failure

• DVT – Deep Vein Thrombosis

• ECG / EKG – Electrocardiogram

• HDL – High-Density Lipoprotein

• LDL – Low-Density Lipoprotein

• LV – Left Ventricle

• MI – Myocardial Infarction

• PAC – Premature Atrial Contraction

• PVC – Premature Ventricular Contraction

• SA – Sinoatrial

• VF / VFib – Ventricular Fibrillation

• VT – Ventricular Tachycardia