The New Frontier and the Great Society: Detailed Study Notes

Kennedy and the Cold War

• The Kennedy administration was characterized by its efforts to confront the Soviet Union and manage some of the most dangerous Cold War confrontations in United States history.

• The primary objective was to address both international tensions and pressing social issues domestically, though many efforts were interrupted by the President's assassination.

The Election of $1960$: A New Era of Campaigning

• Public Fears and the Military Context:

  • During the election, Americans were increasingly concerned that the United States was falling behind the Soviet Union in terms of military capability.

• John F. Kennedy’s Candidacy:

  • JFK addressed his Catholicism openly to allay public worries regarding his potential religious influence on his presidency.

  • Kennedy's stance on Civil Rights: JFK took a decisive public stand on the arrest of Martin Luther King, Jr., a move that proved vital in securing the Black vote.

• The First Televised Presidential Debate:

  • The debate took place between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon.

  • Richard Nixon was recognized as a foreign policy expert.

  • John F. Kennedy was coached by television producers and, as a result, appeared more polished and capable on camera than Nixon, significantly affecting voter perception.

The Kennedy Mystique and the "Camelot" Years

• The Close Election: Kennedy won the presidency in a very narrow margin.

• Critics' Perspective: Critics often argued that Kennedy’s smooth, glamorous style lacked underlying substance.

• The Concept of "Camelot":

  • The Kennedy White House was frequently referred to as "Camelot" due to its perceived glamour, culture, and wit.

  • First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy was widely admired for her elegance, and the public was fascinated by constant news articles regarding the family.

• "The Best and the Brightest":

  • JFK’s team of advisers were collectively termed "the best and the brightest."

  • His brother, Robert Kennedy, was notably appointed as the Attorney General.

Redefining Military Strategy: Flexible Response

• Defining a New Strategy: JFK believed the nation needed to redefine its nuclear strategy to avoid being forced into a choice between nuclear war or nothing.

• Flexible Response: This policy involved building up conventional military forces to allow the U.S. to fight conventional wars while keeping nuclear arms balanced.

• Increased Defense Spending: Kennedy increased defense spending in three specific areas:

  • The strengthening of conventional forces.

  • The creation of an elite branch of the army known as the Special Forces, or Green Berets.

  • The tripling of the nation's nuclear capabilities.

Crises Over Cuba: Castro and the Bay of Pigs

• The Cuban Dilemma:

  • The revolutionary leader Fidel Castro declared himself a communist and seized U.S. properties in Cuba.

  • In response, President Eisenhower cut off diplomatic relations with the nation.

  • Approximately $10\%$ of the Cuban population went into exile, with most fleeing to the United States.

• The Bay of Pigs Invasion:

  • The CIA and Cuban exiles planned an invasion to topple Castro's regime.

  • The mission resulted in a public embarrassment for the Kennedy administration as plans went wrong, and the exile forces were either killed or taken prisoner.

  • Kennedy was eventually forced to pay a ransom in the form of food and medicine to secure the release of survivors.

The Cuban Missile Crisis

• Soviet Nuclear Presence: Nikita Khrushchev sent weapons to Cuba, which included nuclear missiles.

• The U.S. Warning: JFK warned the Soviet Union that any missile attack from Cuba would trigger an all-out nuclear war on the U.S.S.R.

• Resolution: The Soviets avoided a direct confrontation at sea and reached an agreement with the United States.

• Political Fallout:

  • Khrushchev’s prestige was severely damaged within the U.S.S.R.

  • JFK faced criticism for his use of brinkmanship and for his failure to successfully oust Castro.

  • Cuban exiles subsequently switched their political allegiance to the Republican Party (GOP).

  • Castro reacted by banning all flights to and from Miami.

The Berlin Crisis and Easing Cold War Tensions

• The Berlin Crisis ($1961$):

  • By $1961$, approximately $20\%$ of Germans had fled to West Berlin, representing a significant economic drain on East Germany.

  • Khrushchev desired to close access roads to West Berlin, but JFK refused.

  • In response, the Soviets isolated West Berlin by constructing the Berlin Wall.

• Searching for Ways to Ease Tensions:

  • Both Khrushchev and Kennedy became conscious of the extreme dangers associated with quick, reactionary decisions.

  • Hot Line: They established a direct telephone line between the White House and the Kremlin to facilitate immediate communication.

  • Limited Test Ban Treaty: This agreement banned the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere.

Kennedy’s New Frontier: Progress and Challenges

• The "New Frontier": This term referred to the domestic and foreign policies of the Kennedy administration.

• Legislative Resistance: JFK struggled to get his ideas passed due to a coalition of Republicans and Southern Democrats.

• Lack of Mandate: Kennedy lacked a clear mandate, which is defined as clear voter support for his specific agenda.

• Stimulating the Economy:

  • By $1960$, the U.S. was in a recession with $6\%$ unemployment.

  • The administration utilized deficit spending to stimulate growth.

  • Kennedy secured a $20\%$ increase in the defense budget and obtained funding to address unemployment problems.

International and Domestic Outreach

• Addressing Poverty Abroad:

  • Peace Corps: A highly successful program of volunteers assisting developing nations.

  • Alliance for Progress: A program providing economic and technical assistance to Latin America, partly intended to deter the spread of communism in the region.

• The Race to the Moon:

  • In April $1961$, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first man in space.

  • Shortly after, the U.S. also put a man in space and began using satellite communications.

  • On July $20$, $1969$, U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon.

  • This initiative led to the growth of university science programs and the rise of new industries and technologies.

• Addressing Domestic Problems:

  • Michael Harrington’s book, The Other America, brought national attention to the issue of poverty.

  • In $1963$, JFK began focusing his efforts on poverty, racial injustice, and civil rights.

Tragedy in Dallas: The Assassination of John F. Kennedy

• Four Days in November:

  • On November $22$, $1963$, JFK was shot and killed while riding in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas.

  • The alleged assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, was himself shot and killed by Jack Ruby.

  • Vice President Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) succeeded Kennedy as President.

• Investigations and Unanswered Questions:

  • The Warren Commission investigated the event and concluded that Oswald had acted alone.

  • A $1979$ reinvestigation by a separate committee concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald was likely part of a conspiracy.

Lyndon Baines Johnson and the Path to the Great Society

• LBJ’s Path to Power:

  • Lyndon Baines Johnson was mentored and helped by Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) during his time as a congressman.

  • In $1948$, LBJ won a seat in the Senate by a narrow margin.

• A Master Politician:

  • In $1955$, LBJ became the Senate Majority Leader.

  • The "LBJ treatment" referred to his unique and legendary ability to persuade fellow senators to support his proposed bills.

  • He successfully passed the Civil Rights Act of $1957$, which was a voting rights measure.

  • He played a crucial role in helping Kennedy win key Southern states during the $1960$ presidential election.

Johnson’s Domestic Agenda: The War on Poverty

• The 1964 Tax Cut: This legislation spurred economic growth and helped lower the federal deficit.

• Civil Rights Act of 1964: This landmark law prohibited discrimination and allowed for federal enforcement of Civil Rights.

• The "War on Poverty": LBJ declared an unconditional war on poverty in America.

• Economic Opportunity Act (EOA): This provided funding for education, training, and small business loans. Specific programs included:

  • Job Corps

  • VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America)

  • Head Start

  • Community Action Program

The 1964 Presidential Election

• The Candidates: The Republicans nominated Senator Barry Goldwater.

• Goldwater’s Platform: He argued that the government should not be involved in solving social and economic problems. He famously threatened to bomb North Vietnam and advocated for military intervention.

• The Outcome: LBJ campaigned on the promise that he would not send troops to Vietnam. He won the election by a landslide.

• Democratic Majority: The election resulted in a massive Democratic majority in Congress, meaning LBJ no longer needed the support of Southern Democrats to pass his bills.

Building the Great Society: Legislation and Reform

• The Great Society: This was LBJ’s legislative program designed to end poverty and racial discrimination. Johnson successfully got Congress to pass $206$ of his bills.

• Education: The Elementary and Secondary Education Act provided federal funding for school materials.

• Healthcare:

  • Medicare: Low-cost medical and hospital insurance specifically for senior citizens.

  • Medicaid: Health insurance for individuals on welfare.

• Housing:

  • Legislation shifted political power from rural areas toward urban centers.

  • Funds were set aside for public housing and to assist low-to-moderate-income families with homes.

  • The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) was created.

  • Robert Weaver was appointed as the HUD secretary, making him the first African American to serve in a presidential cabinet.

• Immigration: The Immigration Act of 1965 ended national quotas that had discriminated against non-Western Europeans.

Environmental and Consumer Protection

• The Environment:

  • Rachel Carson’s book, Silent Spring, exposed the ecological dangers of pesticides.

  • The Water Quality Act of 1965 required states to actively clean up their rivers.

  • LBJ ordered the government to identify and pursue the worst chemical polluters.

• Consumer Protection: New laws established standards for consumer labels, automotive safety, and food safety.

Reforms of the Warren Court

• The Warren Court: Refers to the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren. The court rejected loyalty oaths and affirmed the principles of free speech and church-state separation.

• Congressional Reapportionment:

  • Reapportionment: The way states redraw election districts based on population changes.

  • The Court ruled that districts must have approximately equal populations (the "one person, one vote" principle).

  • This led to a significant shift in political power from rural to urban areas.

• Rights of the Accused: The Warren Court expanded the rights of individuals accused of crimes through several key rulings:

  • Illegally seized evidence cannot be used in court.

  • Courts are required to provide legal counsel to those who are poor.

  • A suspect must be read their rights before being questioned.

  • While some praised these as protections for a fair trial, others argued they handicapped police investigations.

The Impact and Legacy of the Great Society

• Social and Economic Effects: Since the end of World War II, LBJ extended federal power more than any other president.

• Poverty Reduction: The poverty rate dropped from $21\%$ of the population in $1962$ to $11\%$ by $1973$.

• Economic Impact: While the massive tax cut spurred the economy, the funding requirements of the Great Society contributed to the federal deficit.

• Continuing Debate: There remains an ongoing debate regarding the finances, the overall effectiveness of these programs, and the proper role of the government in social welfare.