UNIT 6 - CONSEQUENCES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION - 1700 to 1900

Ideas That Justified Imperialism

Introduction to New Imperialism (1750-1900)

• Overview of the shift to a second wave of imperialism influenced by new ideologies.

• Context of prior maritime empires established by Western European states dominating Indian Ocean trade and colonizing the Americas.

Key Ideologies Motivating Imperialism

Nationalism

• Definition: A sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, and customs, leading to a desire for self-rule.

• Transition from loyalty to sovereign figures (kings, queens, etc.) to loyalty towards one's nation due to Enlightenment ideas and industrialization.

• Significant impacts on historical developments during this period:

  • Unification of Italy and Germany, driven by nationalistic desires.

  • Increased imperial rivalries as states sought to expand their empires to enhance power status.

  • Potential dark side of nationalism: fostering superiority complexes over other nations.

Scientific Racism

• Definition: The ranking of humans into distinct biological classes based on race, falsely legitimized by purported scientific methods.

• Shift from religious-based divisions (Christians vs. non-Christians) to secular classifications based on race.

• Examples of pseudo-scientific practices:

  • Phrenology: Study of human skull shapes used to claim white superiority based on the size of skulls.

  • Justification for imperialism by depicting other races as inferior or "child races" needing control and civilizing.

Social Darwinism

• Distinction between biological Darwinism (Charles Darwin's theory of evolution) and social Darwinism.

• Social Darwinists applied natural selection to human societies, proposing that:

  • Western industrial powers thrived because they were better adapted to their environments and therefore were entitled to dominate less developed nations.

  • This ideology justified the exploitation of weaker nations by stronger ones in a competitive global landscape.

Civilizing Mission

• Definition: The perceived duty of Western societies to bring their "superior" civilizations to "lower civilizations."

• Motivations for colonial endeavors:

  • Conversion of indigenous peoples to Christianity.

  • Reorganizing colonial governance to reflect Western models.

  • Efforts to establish Western-style education, suppressing indigenous languages and cultures.

Conclusion

• The amalgamation of these ideologies created a compelling narrative for the second wave of imperialism, paving the way for increased European expansionism in this period.

How Imperial States Expanded

Introduction to Second Wave of Imperialism

• The focus of imperialism in the period from 1750 to 1900 is significantly different from earlier periods.

• First wave (1450 to 1750): European imperial powers like Spain and Portugal heavily invested in the Americas, parts of Asia, and some coastal regions of Africa primarily for trade.

• Second wave sees a shift toward Africa, Asia, and Southeast Asia.

• Decline of Spain and Portugal, rise of new players such as Germany, Italy, Belgium, the United States, and Japan.

Methods of Imperial Expansion

1. State Takeovers of Private Colonies

• Some colonies were previously controlled by individuals or corporations.

  • Example: The Belgian Congo was initially a private colony of King Leopold II.

  • Leopold's purported humanitarian motives masked brutal exploitation, particularly for rubber extraction, resulting in millions of deaths.

• Following public outrage, the Belgian government took control in 1908.

• Other examples include:

  • Dutch government taking Indonesia from the Dutch East India Company.

  • British government assuming control of India from the British East India Company.

2. Diplomacy and Warfare

A. Diplomacy in Africa

• Diplomacy involves political agreements through dialogue, avoiding warfare.

• Key Event: The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) where European powers negotiated territorial claims in Africa (scramble for Africa).

  • Resulted in the carving up of Africa without African input, disrupting ethnic groups and unity.

B. Warfare in Africa

• Warfare was used by some states to expand their territories.

• Example: France and Algeria, where tensions over payments escalated into military invasion following a diplomatic incident.

  • Despite resistance, France expanded its control over North Africa through military actions.

3. Establishment of Settler Colonies

• Settler colonies involve claiming inhabited land and sending settlers to build new societies.

• Examples: British settler colonies in Australia and New Zealand.

  • Settlers established neo-European societies, causing population declines among indigenous groups due to disease and displacement.

4. Conquering Neighboring Territories

• Simplified expansion through conquering adjacent regions.

A. The United States

• Manifest Destiny drove U.S. expansion across the continent, displacing indigenous peoples.

  • Policies included forced relocation to reservations and assimilation practices, notably through boarding schools.

B. Russia

• After the Crimean War, Pan-Slavism emerged among Russian elites as an ideological movement.

  • Aimed to unite Slavic peoples and expand Russian control over neighboring territories, establishing a presence in East Asia by the late 1860s.

C. Japan

• Japan rapidly industrialized during the Meiji Restoration, enabling it to join imperialism.

  • Expanded influence over Korea, Manchuria, and parts of China, reflecting methods used by Western powers.

Conclusion

• The second wave of imperialism features diverse methods of expansion including state control transitions, diplomacy through conferences, direct military conquest, establishment of settler societies, and strategic local conquests. These changes reflect shifting global power dynamics.

Indigenous Imperial Resistance

Causes of Anti-Colonial Resistance

• Resistance against imperial intrusion stemmed from several intertwining reasons, primarily:

  • Questioning Political Authority

    • The introduction of Western-style education influenced by Enlightenment thought raised questions about the legitimacy of imperial power among the educated classes in colonized regions.

    • Ideas such as popular sovereignty and the social contract made them critically assess foreign domination.

    • However, questioning authority was not exclusive to the educated; many imperial subjects resisted without formal education.

  • Growing Sense of Nationalism

    • Nationalism developed as imperial powers imposed their culture, language, and governance on colonized societies.

    • This often sparked a desire among colonized peoples to assert their identity and sovereignty, mobilizing them to resist foreign rule.

Forms of Resistance to Imperial Intrusion

• Various methods of resistance arose in response to imperialism, including:

  • Direct Violence Against Imperial States

    • Many groups engaged in armed rebellion to expel imperial forces.

    • One notable case is the Yaa Asante War in West Africa:

      • The British aimed to take over the Asante Kingdom for its gold reserves, launching multiple attempts to conquer the territory.

      • In the fifth and decisive conflict known as the War of the Golden Stool, Queen Mother Yaa Asantewaa led the Asante in armed resistance to defend their cultural symbol, the golden stool.

      • Despite valiant efforts, the industrially superior British forces ultimately defeated the Asante.

  • Establishment of New States

    • In regions like the United States, indigenous peoples created new states in response to encroachment.

    • The Cherokee Nation formed as the U.S. expanded westward after gaining independence:

      • Though some indigenous groups tried to assimilate, aggressive legislative actions like the Indian Removal Act of 1835 forcibly displaced them to Oklahoma, where they established a semi-autonomous government.

      • However, growing U.S. territory led to marginalization of Cherokee authority over time.

  • Religiously Inspired Rebellions

    • Some resistance was framed through religious movements, such as the Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement:

      • Faced with territorial losses and cattle diseases attributed to European contact, a prophecy emerged promising restoration through a mass slaughter of cattle.

      • The Xhosa people killed hundreds of thousands of cattle, mistakenly believing this would lead to the resurgence of their livestock and drive out British settlers.

      • The result was devastating famine, making it easier for British forces to claim Xhosa lands.

Global Economic Changes

Overview of Second Wave of Imperialism

• The second wave of imperialism involved industrialized powers aiming to colonize much of the world.

• Major motivation: acquisition of raw materials for manufacturing.

• Transformation of colonial economies into export economies focused on raw materials.

Changes in Agricultural Practices

Transition from Subsistence to Export Economies

• Pre-colonization: Subsistence farming in regions like Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Americas, where farmers grew various foods for survival.

• Post-colonization: Shift towards monoculture or the production of one or two cash crops or raw materials for distant markets.

• Example: Land once used for diverse food production becomes exclusively for cash crops (e.g., cotton).

Impacts of Imperial Changes on Farming

• Cash crop cultivation prioritized over local food consumption leading to food shortages for indigenous populations.

• Examples of cash crops: cotton in Egypt, palm oil in West Africa, guano extraction for fertilizers.

Economic Motivations Behind Imperialism

Need for Raw Materials

• Industrial powers required raw materials to sustain industrial production and increase their power.

• Britain relied heavily on cotton from colonies like Egypt and India after supply from the U.S. diminished due to the Civil War.

• Palm oil was crucial for lubrication in industries and soaps, prompting exploitation and establishment of plantations in West Africa.

• Guano, rich in nitrogen, became valuable as fertilizer for industrial agriculture.

Urbanization and Food Supply

• Industrialization led to urbanization, necessitating imports of food to feed growing urban populations.

• Transition of some colonial economies to cash crop production of essential foods such as sugar, coffee, and meat to satisfy demands.

• Agricultural changes included industrial ranching operations, particularly in Argentina and Brazil.

Economic Effects of Imperialism

Closed Markets for Manufactured Goods

• Exports from colonies were used to purchase manufactured goods from imperial powers.

• Britain's territories increased but focus remained on integrating those colonies into a trade network rather than mere territorial gain.

• Colonial economies shifted towards cash crops, forcing indigenous populations to purchase essential goods from the world market, often leading to dependency on imperial powers.

Dependence of Colonial Peoples

• Economic dependence grew among the colonial inhabitants as their economies became tailored to benefit the colonizers rather than themselves.

• Colonial reorganizations served solely the interests of imperial states, enhancing their control over local populations.

Economic Imperialism Explained

Different Flavors of Imperialism

• Concept of Economic Imperialism

  • Involves control of one state over another via economic means rather than military conquest.

  • Full colonization is costly; economic imperialism offers a more feasible approach for industrial powers.

Case Study: Economic Imperialism in China

• China's Historical Context

  • Once seen as the "Middle Kingdom," central to global power.

  • Shifted from dominance to vulnerability due to failure to industrialize, making it a target for imperial powers.

• The Opium Wars

  • Background: Britain faced trade imbalance; high demand for Chinese goods (tea, silk, porcelain) but low demand for British goods in China.

  • British Response: Instead of creating desirable products, Britain increased opium production in India to export to China.

  • Impact of Opium: High addiction rates in China shifted silver flow to Britain, exacerbating the trade imbalance.

  • Qing Dynasty's Reaction: Attempted to ban opium, leading to tensions with Britain.

• First Opium War

  • Resulted in British military victory and humiliation for China.

  • Forced China to sign the Treaty of Nanjing, opening multiple trading ports and granting economic influence to Britain.

• Continued Decline of China

  • Mid-19th century saw internal strife, notably the Taiping Rebellion.

  • Major consequences: Qing spent resources suppressing the rebellion, which further destabilized the empire.

  • Increased vulnerability attracted further foreign intervention, culminating in the Second Opium War involving both Britain and France.

  • Result: Further unequal treaties, more trading ports opened, and division of China into spheres of influence among Western powers.

Case Study: Economic Imperialism in Argentina

• British Investment

  • 19th-century investments focused on improving infrastructure (railroads, trade ports) to facilitate extraction of resources.

  • Construction of a trading port in Buenos Aires funded by British firms, serving their factories.

  • Led to Argentina's economic dependence on British investment and increased exports.

Reorganization of Colonial Economies

• Focus on Trade and Commodities

  • Colonial economies were often restructured around the demands of imperial powers for specific commodities.

  • Example Commodities:

    • Cotton in India and Egypt: Grown as cash crops for export, creating economic dependency.

    • Palm Oil in Sub-Saharan Africa: Economies were organized around extraction for export.

• Overall Trend: Imperial powers shaped global economies to favor their interests, harming colonial populations economically.

Causes of Migration

Causes of Migration (1750-1900)

• Migration during this period resulted from multiple interrelated causes, including environmental factors, technological advancements, and economic needs.

Environmental Causes

Demographic Change

• Significant population growth, especially in Europe from 1850 to 1914 due to advances in medicine and diet.

• Longer life spans coupled with higher birth rates led to rural overpopulation.

• Many rural individuals, facing poverty due to mechanization of agriculture, migrated to urban areas in search of industrial jobs.

Famine

• Famine, particularly in non-industrialized regions, pushed people to migrate.

• Example: The Irish Potato Famine in the 1840s led to millions of deaths and significant emigration, especially to urban centers in America.

Facilitating Factors of Migration

Transportation Technology

• New modes of transportation like railroads and steamships reduced travel costs and time, making migration easier.

• Migrants often settled in urban centers of industrial and colonial regions, prompting urbanization; some cities saw a population growth of about 30%.

• While many migrants left never to return, some returned home due to the accessibility afforded by steamship travel.

• Example: Lebanese merchants migrated to Argentina and Brazil for economic opportunities and to escape Ottoman persecution, with many able to return due to affordable travel.

Economic Causes

Job-Seeking Migration

• People migrated to find work due to economic hardships.

• Two types of job-seeking migration:

  • Voluntary Migration: Individuals made their own decision to relocate, e.g., Irish, Italian, and German immigrants moving to the Eastern U.S. cities; Chinese immigrants to the West Coast for railroad work.

  • Forced Migration: Millions were coerced or semi-coerced into migration due to labor demands.

    • Coerced Labor: Atlantic slave trade persisted at the start of this period, moving enslaved individuals in large numbers.

    • Convict Labor: British and French penal colonies (e.g., Australia and Guiana) sent convicts abroad for hard labor instead of domestic imprisonment.

    • Semi-Coerced Labor (Indentured Servitude): Workers signed contracts for several years in exchange for passage to new lands. British facilitated migration of indentured Indians to Caribbean and other regions, while Chinese indentured servants worked in British-run tin mines in Malaysia.

Conclusion

• Migration between 1750 and 1900 was significantly shaped by demographic changes, environmental crises like famine, advancements in transportation, and varying economic motivations, encompassing voluntary and forced movements of people.

Effects of Migration

Gender Imbalance in Home Societies

• Demographic Shift: The migration primarily involved men seeking employment, leading to a gender imbalance where women outnumbered men at home.

• Changing Roles of Women: With many men absent, women increasingly took on traditionally male duties, particularly in subsistence farming.

  • Example: Women now breaking ground for planting and tending to livestock, roles traditionally held by men.

• Family Structure Changes: In regions like South Africa, women became heads of households, with around 60% of households led by women.

  • Financial Independence: Women capitalized on opportunities like selling excess food (e.g., cassava) in markets,

  • Popular saying among women: "What is man? I have my own money," reflecting newfound independence and empowerment.

Creation of Ethnic Enclaves

• Definition of Ethnic Enclaves: Geographic areas with concentrated populations of the same ethnicity amidst a different cultural environment.

• Cultural Preservation: Enclaves served as cultural outposts where migrants maintained their languages, religions, and culinary traditions, providing familiarity in new settings.

  • Example: Indian migrants in Mauritius and Natal practicing Hinduism and Islam within their communities.

• Cultural Diffusion: The presence of these groups introduced their cultures into the broader society.

  • Example: Irish immigrants promoting Catholicism in the predominantly Protestant United States; Chinese immigrants establishing significant roles in Southeast Asia's colonial economy.

Rise of Nativism

• Definition of Nativism: A policy favoring the interests of native-born citizens over those of immigrants, often rooted in ethnic and racial prejudices.

• Economic Contributions vs. Prejudice: Despite immigrants filling low-wage jobs, they faced backlash embodying fear of cultural differences.

  • Example: Irish immigrants marginalized in U.S. society, being labeled as a lower race contrary to their racial identity in Europe.

Government Responses to Nativism

• Chinese Exclusion Act (U.S.): This act was passed to restrict Chinese immigration despite their critical role in developing the U.S. railroads.

  • Resulted from anti-Chinese sentiments leading to riots and violence against the community.

• White Australia Policy (Australia): Aimed to maintain a white British influence by limiting Asian immigration, specifically targeting Chinese immigrants during a similar nativist backlash.