Media encompasses various communication formats, from television (broadcast airwaves) to print (printed documents).
Mass media refers to all forms of media communicating information to the general public.
Public relations involves communication to improve the image of companies, organizations, or candidates.
Media Types
Sources of news include:
Social media (e.g., YouTube, Twitter, Facebook) are preferred by Millennials.
Television (public, cable, satellite) is preferred by Baby Boomers.
Radio.
Internet and Blogosphere.
Newspapers.
Functions of the Media
Making Profit: Revenue is generated through advertising and sponsorships.
The Media as the Fourth Estate:
Acts as watchdogs of society and public officials.
Agenda setting: Choosing which issues deserve public discussion.
Promote the Public Good:
Offers a platform for public debate.
Improves citizen awareness.
The Issue of Media Bias.
The Evolution of the Media
Print Media
Party Press Era:
Partisanship and political party loyalty influenced editorial content.
Publication of the Federalist Papers and Anti-Federalist Papers in the 1780s.
Mass Production and Dissemination of Newspapers: Machines, manufacturing, and infrastructure advancements between 1830-1860.
Yellow Journalism:
Tabloid-style papers with editorial pages, cartoons, and pictures.
Sensational and scandalous front-page news.
Muckraking: Exposing corrupt business and government practices through news coverage.
Digital Paywall: Online subscriptions.
Radio
Invention of Radio: Radio news emerged in the 1920s.
By 1940, almost 83% of households had radios.
Political Use of Radio:
Warren Harding was the first president to give regular radio speeches.
Herbert Hoover used radio to announce government programs for aid and unemployment relief.
Franklin D. Roosevelt became famous for using radio's political power.
Public and Satellite Radio Today include Rush Limbaugh and Howard Stern.
Television
The First Official Broadcast in the US: President Franklin Roosevelt’s speech at the opening of the 1939 World’s Fair in New York.
Reaching out and connecting with citizens and voters in deeper and instant ways.
Gaining political support for policies.
Combatting scandals and accusations of impropriety.
New Media Trends
Media Use for Political Purposes:
Horse-race coverage: Journalists analyze campaigns and blunders rather than interviewing candidates or discussing issues.
Citizen Journalism: Citizens use personal recording devices to capture events and post them online.
Soft News: Presents news in an entertaining and approachable manner.
Regulating the Media
Media and the First Amendment
Free Press Vital to Democracy.
The Trial of John Peter Zenger (1734).
The First Amendment and the Freedom of the Press.
Slander: Speaking false information with intent to harm.
Libel: Printing false information with intent to harm.
“Reckless disregard” and malicious intent required for public figures (New York Times v. Sullivan, 1964).
Prior Restraint:
The Pentagon Papers case (1971).
Media and FCC Regulations
The Radio Act of 1927.
The Communications Act of 1934:
Replaced the Radio Act and created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
FCC oversees radio and telephone communication.
The equal-time rule:
Registered candidates must be given equal opportunities for airtime and advertisements at non-cable television and radio stations.
The fairness doctrine (1949-1987):
Required licensed stations to cover controversial issues in a balanced manner.
Indecency Regulations:
Limit indecent material.
Keep public airwaves free of obscene material (Miller v. California, 1973).
The Court has ruled that FCC can regulate content.
Media and Transparency
Sunshine laws: Mandate government proceedings and documents be made available to the public.
Freedom of Information Act (1966):
Requires the executive branch to provide information requested by citizens.
Journalists Reliance on Confidential Sources.
Reporter’s privilege: Granting anonymity to sources.
Branzburg v. Hayes (1972):
Journalists were placed in contempt of court for refusing to divulge sources.
The Supreme Court agreed.
The Impact of the Media
Media Effects and Bias
The hypodermic theory:
Information is “shot” into the receiver’s mind and readily accepted.
The minimal effects theory:
The media have little effect on citizens and voters.
The cultivation theory:
The media develop a person’s view of the world by presenting a perceived reality.
Framing:
The creation of a narrative or context for a news story.
Episodic framing: Focuses on isolated details.
Thematic framing: Takes a broad look at an issue, skips numbers or details.
Coverage Effects on Governance and Campaigns
The Media Seen as Kingmakers:
Influencing public opinion by discussing candidates’ messages, vetting credentials, carrying sound bites, and conducting interviews.
Campaign coverage focuses on the spectacle of the season.
Avoiding substantial debate on issues.
The case of Donald J. Trump
Campaigns increasingly use social media to relay their message.
Coverage Effects on Society
Agenda setting:
Creates a reality for voters and politicians.
Affects the way people think, act, and vote.
Racial framing:
Affects perceptions and policies.
Media coverage of women has been similarly biased.
Beats:
News areas or topics normally reserved for male journalists.
Negative media coverage of female candidates.
Key Terms
Agenda setting: the media’s ability to choose which issues or topics get attention
Beat: the coverage area assigned to journalists for news or stories
Citizen journalism: video and print news posted to the Internet or social media by citizens rather than the news media
Cultivation theory: the idea that media affect a citizen’s worldview through the information presented
Digital paywall: the need for a paid subscription to access published online material
Equal-time rule: an FCC policy that all candidates running for office must be given the same radio and television airtime opportunities
Fairness doctrine: a 1949 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) policy, now defunct, that required holders of broadcast licenses to cover controversial issues in a balanced manner
Framing: the process of giving a news story a specific context or background
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA): a federal statute that requires public agencies to provide certain types of information requested by citizens
Hypodermic theory: the idea that information is placed in a citizen’s brain and accepted
Indecency regulations: laws that limit indecent and obscene material on public airwaves
Libel: printed information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization
Mass media: the collection of all media forms that communicate information to the general public
Minimal effects theory: the idea that the media have little effect on citizens
Muckraking: news coverage focusing on exposing corrupt business and government practices
Party press era: period during the 1780s in which newspaper content was biased by political partisanship
Priming: the process of predisposing readers or viewers to think a particular way
Prior restraint: a government action that stops someone from doing something before they are able to do it (e.g., forbidding someone to publish a book he or she plans to release)
Public relations: biased communication intended to improve the image of people, companies, or organizations
Reporter’s privilege: the right of a journalist to keep a source confidential
Slander: spoken information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization
Soft news: news presented in an entertaining style
Sunshine laws: laws that require government documents and proceedings to be made public
Yellow journalism: sensationalized coverage of scandals and human interest stories