USA 1945-1974: The People & The State

Post-War Challenges: 1945-1954

The Red Scare

• A "red scare" is the threat of communist ideals influencing non-communist countries.
• This particular event followed the Cold War and was imposed by the Soviet Union.
• All federal employees were interviewed to determine their loyalty to the US government.
• They also deeply interviewed and investigated members of the Hollywood film industry.

The Rosenberg Case

• Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were charged with the conspiracy to commit espionage.
• This ruling and conspiracy later caused them to be executed on June 19th, 1953.
• Both people were active members in the Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA).
• Julius Rosenberg obtained a job with the US Signal Corps, where he would disclose secrets and tactics with the Soviet Union.
• David Greenglass, Ethel's brother, was a machinist for the Manhattan Project who disclosed information of atomic bombs that was passed to the Soviet Union.
• Julius was dismissed from the US Army in 1945 since he lied about his communist affiliation.
• After a few interior arrests, the arrest of Greenglass and Rosenberg followed in June and July of 1950.
• The Rosenbergs were brought to trial on March 6th, 1951.
• Their trial judge, Irving R. Kaufman, described their crime "worse than murder".
• There were a total of seven appeals that had reached the Supreme Court, all of which were denied.
• The Rosenbergs were executed at Sing Sing prison in Ossining, New York.

McCarthyism

• McCarthyism was a series of investigations during the Red Scare that exposed pieces or people of the US government that were supposedly infiltrated with communism.
• These investigations were led by Joseph McCarthy.
• The accusations of communism were extremely widespread and often lacked concrete evidence and facts.
• While McCarthy led the accusations, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) also played a large role in the allegations.
• The citizens that were accused were often blacklisted as a direct result.
• McCarthy experienced a large downfall when his strategies were exposed in the Army-McCarthy hearings, which were nationally televised.

Jim Crow Laws & African American Roles

• The Jim Crow Laws were a series of laws that were predominant in the south that heavily enforced racial segregation.
• These laws enforced segregated public places such as schools, restrooms, water fountains, buses and trains, and restaurants.
• With these laws in place, African Americans were at a severe disadvantage to daily life in the United States.
• The Jim Crow Laws also placed a literacy test on voting polls, often littered with complex and wordy questions that were made to prevent African Americans from passing.
• Voting polls were also placed with a certain tax that was designed to be unpayable by Black voters.
• Black voters also experienced pure intimidation and violence when they attempted to vote.
• Because of education differences, even after the Civil Rights Act, life for African Americans was extremely difficult.
• However, these laws were abolished when the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was put into place.

Civil Rights: 1954-1964

The Civil Rights Movement

• The Civil Rights Movement was a series of events that pushed for desegregation and equality among races in the United States.
• While there are many pieces to this movement, some include the March on Washington, Selma to Montgomery March, the Freedom Rides, and numerous nonviolent protests.
• This movement as a whole transformed American society and led to significant racial equality.

Brown vs Board of Education

• The decision on this case overruled Plessy vs Ferguson, in which they established "separate but equal" which allowed segregation at the states discretion.
• The vote on the case was unanimous (9-0) and this emphasized the Supreme Court's position against segregation.
• The Court also ruled that the segregation went against the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, which basically states the state cannot deny anyone equal protection of the laws.
• This decision required the desegregation of all public schools in America.
• The case as a whole helped people challenge segregation in other areas of public life, ultimately playing a large role in the Civil Rights Movement.
• In the beginning, many states were very resistant to the change and tried to find loopholes to get around desegregation.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott

• Rosa Parks' arrest on December 1st, 1955, was the original spark of interest for this boycott.
• Throughout this boycott, Martin Luther King Jr. rose and became a leader and figure of inspiration.
• Martin Luther King Jr. was elected president to the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) and he helped them stay motivated throughout.
• Despite numerous threats and vast harassment, the boycott remained peaceful for all 381 days.
• In the end, during the case Browder vs Gayle, segregation on public buses was deemed unconstitutional.
• The Montgomery bussing system faced economic hardship due to their reliance on African American riders.

Government Contributions

• The government took many executive actions to enforce the desegregation of America. Executive orders 9981 (desegregation of armed forces) & 10730 (desegregation of schools starting at Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas) were prime examples.
• There were also many acts signed to increase the rights of African Americans and also encourage voting participation by making the process easier.
• The Civil Rights Act of 1957 established the Civil Rights Division of the Department of Justice.
• Members of the National Guard were used to protect civil rights activists.

The Role of the Supreme Court

• The Supreme Court passed many cases that further desegregated America one step at a time.
• Loving vs Virginia was passed in 1967 and it voided laws that prohibited interracial marriage.
• Shelley vs Kraemer was passed in 1948 and it prohibited racial discrimination in the housing market that segregated people on where they could buy houses.

John F. Kennedy

• Kennedy was initially hesitant at first to speak on civil rights, however later he went on to call this a "moral issue" and called for immediate legislation.
• He had extensive efforts to end public segregation and discrimination and wanted to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1963, which was not passed.
• He sent federal troops to support desegregation at the Universities of Mississippi and Alabama in 1962 & 1963 respectively.

Andrew Johnson

• Johnson's presidency overall marked a severe resistance of the civil rights movement and all progress towards desegregation.
• He publicly opposed the 14th Amendment, which granted citizenship to newly freed slaves.
• He put forth effort to bring back power to the Southern whites which indirectly contributed to the failure of early Reconstruction efforts.

Government and Dissent: 1964-1974

Malcolm X

• Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little) was a very influential individual on the topics of African American rights and self defense.
• He also was a very well-known spokesperson for the Nation of Islam.
• He was assassinated while giving a speech in New York City and this was proven to be a significant loss to the movement.

Black Power Movement

• This movement as a whole was made to empower Black people to hold more self-respect and pride.
• On top of more individual characteristics, this movement also advocated for more political representation and social reformation.
• They aimed to address and hopefully get rid of issues such as segregation and police brutality.
• This movement has been heavily criticized mostly for its violent piece.
• Influential people involved included Malcolm X and Stokely Carmicheal.

Impacts on Native Americans

• Overall, the Civil Rights Movement empowered Native Americans to hopefully seek justice of their own. It demonstrated that collective, peaceful action can have optimal results.
• This movement also helped jumpstart the Native American Rights Movement that aimed for treaty issues and police brutality.
• The Civil Rights Movement brought national attention to the injustices in other minorities such as Native Americans.
• The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 extended rights listed in the Bill of Rights to Native Americans.

Feminist Movements

• The Civil Rights Movement also sparked the idea to promote equality among gender.
• The Second-Wave Feminism Movement sought to bring workplace discrimination and reproductive rights to the attention of the government.
• The Black Feminism Movement was made to bring up the unique issues that a black woman faces. These include gender, class, and race.
• With these movements, women have made great strides to have equal rights in the workplace as well as the voting polls.

Equal Pay Act

• The Equal Pay Act of 1963 was made to demolish the unequal pay among genders in the United States workplace.
• The act specifies that salary differences must be based on factors outside of gender.
• This act was a large step towards equality among genders, mainly in the workplace. However, it set the stage for equality outside.

Stonewall Riots

• These riots were a strung series of spontaneous acts made by LGBTQ+ members at the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar located in Greenwich Village, New York City.
• These riots were a direct response to a police raid in the bar, which was common for the time.
• The bar members were frustrated with the police raids and clashed with them often.
• These riots mark history in the LGBTQ+ Rights Movement and started increased activism in the fight for LGBTQ+ rights.
• These riots led to marches and organizations made in effort to increase rights and equality.

Anti-Vietnam War Protests

• There were numerous protests in an effort to show the opposition of the United States involvement in Vietnam.
• Notable events within these protests include the 1969 Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam and the Kent State University shooting of 1970.
• The Kent State shooting of 1970 drew national attention after the National Guard fired into a group of students protesting the invasion of Cambodia, killing four students and wounding nine more.
• College campuses were a major hub for these protests and disrupted education for this issue.
• The protests eventually influenced the US to slowly withdraw from the war entirely and pass the War Powers Act of 1973, which limited the president's ability to engage in war.

Divisions in the US

• The US was heavily split in many different ways during this time. Some include race, gender, economic class, and location.
• During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a notable difference between economic classes that became more apparent as time progressed. Poverty was also on the rise during this time period.
• While the Civil Rights Movement made great leaps in the right direction for racial equality, there was still a persistent push back of white supremacy that wanted the old system back.
• During this time, hippie culture was on the rise and there was a great blend of cultures and strong attitudes accompanying.
• These new cultures challenged the traditional social norms that had been in place for long periods of time.

Johnson's "Great Society"

• President Lyndon B. Johnson began to push back on some of these issues and created solutions.
• One main issue he wanted to fight was poverty. This included Medicare and Medicaid which aimed to provide medical care to the elderly and low-income families.
• He also created the Educational Reform which aimed to improve educational opportunities, especially for children with disadvantages.
• Johnson also worked tirelessly to create numerous jobs for those without to get back on their feet.
• Lastly, The Great Society included making improvements to the environment and sustaining it for the future.
• The Great Society overall made great strides to address social issues and make a more equitable society.