Paleolithic ii

Emergence and Anatomy of Cro-Magnons

• Cro-Magnons are identified as the earliest anatomically correct Homo sapiens.

• They first appear in Western Europe approximately $35,000$ years ago.

• They are associated with the Aurignacian tool tradition.

• Their appearance marks the formal beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period.

• Anatomical differences from Neanderthals include:     - Less protruding brow-ridges.     - A thinner, more gracile (slender) bone structure.     - The presence of definite chins.

Interactions with Other Hominids

• Neanderthals and Homo sapiens:     - These two species co-existed for a minimum of $20,000$ years.     - Three primary theories regarding the fate of Neanderthals and their interaction with modern humans include:         1. Mating and producing offspring together, contributing to the modern human gene pool.         2. Driven to extinction by modern humans due to direct competition for resources.         3. Direct conflict where Neanderthals were killed off by modern humans.

• Denisovans:     - Evidence for this group was discovered in the Denisova Cave in Siberia.     - Finds include a specific tooth and a finger bone.

The Upper Paleolithic Period

• Associated with Modern Humans (Homo sapiens).

• In Africa, this period is referred to as the Later Stone Age.

• Chronology: Lasted from approximately $40,000$ to $10,000$ years ago.

• Conclusion: The period ended with the conclusion of the last Ice Age.

• Characteristics: Marked by more advanced tool-making, the creation of art, the establishment of home-bases, and sophisticated hunting techniques.

Models of Modern Human Origin

• Complete Replacement Model:     - Suggests modern humans originated solely in Africa.     - Proposes they migrated out of Africa and populated Europe and Asia by replacing existing populations.     - Assumes no interbreeding between populations, or that it occurred very rarely.     - Implies that non-African species would have been distinctly different from African species.

• Regional Continuity Model (Multiregional Evolution):     - Strongly associated with paleoanthropologist Milford Wolpoff of the University of Michigan.     - Suggests that populations in Europe, Asia, and Africa underwent continuous evolutionary development from archaic H. sapiens into anatomically modern humans simultaneously.     - Proposes that early populations maintained a significant amount of gene flow.     - Under this model, every hominid from H. erectus through H. sapiens would be categorized as the same species.

• Assimilation Model:     - Involves the spread of Homo erectus throughout the Old World starting roughly $1,800,000$ years ago from an African origin, followed by a modern human lineage that incorporates various populations.

Significant Fossil Specimens and Discoveries

• Herto Cranium (Ethiopia):     - Dated to between $160,000$ and $154,000$ years ago.     - Classification: H. sapiens idaltu ("idaltu" means "elder" in the Afar language).     - Features: Very large, extremely long cranial vault with a volume of $1450\,\text{cm}^3$. It possesses a large arching browridge and a projecting occipital protuberance.

• Near East/Israel:     - Skhũl 5 and Qafzeh 6: These are considered representatives of early modern Homo sapiens. They exhibit modern traits such as vault height, visible foreheads, and a lack of prognathism (protruding jaw).

• Australia/Sahul:     - Modern humans inhabited Sahul (the region including New Guinea and Australia) by $50,000$ years ago.     - Lake Mungo (SE Australia): Dated to approximately $60,000$? years ago, or more definitively between $30,000$ and $25,000$ years ago.     - Kow Swamp: Dated to $14,000 - 9,000$ years ago. These fossils show archaic features such as receding foreheads, heavy supraorbital tori, and thick bones.

• Europe:     - Mladec and Doln Vstonice (Czech Republic): Key examples of early modern humans in Central Europe.     - Oase (Romania): Along with the Czech sites, Oase provides evidence that modern H. sapiens appeared first in central Europe before appearing in western Europe.     - Cro-Magnon I (France): Displays clear modern traits in lateral and frontal views.

• Timeline of Other Discoveries:     - Africa: Omo Kibish, Klasies River Mouth, Border Cave.     - China: Tianyuan, Ordos, Zhoukoudian (Upper Cave).     - Southeast Asia: Niah Cave.     - Europe: Lagar Velho.

Upper Paleolithic Tool Traditions

• Evolution of industries based on environmental shifts:     - Chatelperronian & Aurignacian: $40,000$ years ago.     - Gravettian: $27,000$ years ago.     - Solutrean: $21,000$ years ago.     - Magdalenian: $17,000$ years ago (the final phase of the Upper Paleolithic stone tool industry).

• Tool Morphology and Innovations:     - Roots: Techniques were rooted in earlier Acheulian and Mousterian traditions.     - Blades: The major innovation of this era. Included very small blades known as microliths which were fitted into arrows or spears.     - Burin: A small, chisel-like tool with a pointed end used for engraving materials such as bone, antler, ivory, or wood.     - Specialized weaponry: Included bows, arrows, spears, and harpoons.

Lifestyle and Environmental Adaptations

• The Last Ice Age:     - Glaciers started at the North Pole and reached as far south as Chicago in the Americas and Berlin in Europe.     - A vast tundra extended south from the glacier edges.     - Homo sapiens in these regions relied heavily on hunting for survival.

• Hunting and Skills:     - Hunters and fishermen became significantly more skilled during this time.     - Introduction of atlatls (spear throwers) allowed blades and spears to be launched with greater force and distance than simple throwing.

Behavioral and Artistic Expression

• Upper Paleolithic culture included carved wood, bone, and beads.

• Cave Art:     - Predominantly depicted animals that were hunted or preferred, such as cattle and horses.     - Functional objects were also decorated, such as painted spear shafts.

• Human Depiction:     - Art included depictions of women characterized by large hips, breasts, and stomachs.

Migration to the Americas

• Timeline:     - Modern humans traveled from Siberia into Alaska at least $12,500$ years ago, with some evidence suggesting a date as early as $20,000$ years ago.

• Method of Travel:     - The Bering Strait was mostly covered in ice at this time. Humans used both walking and boat travel for the crossing.

• Settlement in North America:     - Evidence shows populations in both North and South America by $12,000 - 11,000$ years ago.     - Clovis Peoples: A culture in North America that developed the Clovis tool tradition.     - Clovis Tools: Shared basic tool sets with other traditions but featured a specific style: flat on the bottom, broad, and possessing a sharp tip.