Operation Condor and State Terrorism in South America

Historical Context of Religion and Power

• Religious Influence in Government: During the $18^{th}$ century, the Catholic Church held significant charge over governments and exerted widespread influence. This dynamic also existed in earlier centuries during European colonization of Africa, where Catholicism was utilized as a tool for control.

• Religion as Justification: Throughout history, the party in control determines the role of religion. For example, during the $1800s$, there was historical discourse regarding the persecution of Jews.

• Dual Nature of Religion: Religion has historically been used both for positive cognitive elements and for negative outcomes, including abuse, territorial takeovers, and as a justification for violence or the seizure of resources from other populations.

Liberation Theology

• Definition: An ideology that emphasizes the liberation of oppressed people.

• Origins: The movement originated in the $1960s$ among Latin Americans.

• Core Principles: Defenders of this theology argue for the protection of the poor against oppression and suppression. It posits that the Church should work alongside poor people rather than remaining distant.

• Societal Goal: It aims to immerse the oppressed in society so they can feel like "normal people" without being judged, emphasizing that their state of poverty is not their fault.

• Perceived Danger to Elites: The movement was considered dangerous by certain elites in power who wanted to maintain their status and felt that religious practices should remain exclusive to their class.

• Political Shift: While it started with religious undertones focused on justice for the poor, it became highly political as it began to challenge oppressive power systems. Opponents often labeled the movement as "communist."

Civil War in Guatemala ($1960$–$1996$)

• Historical Catalyst: In $1954$, a US-backed coup overthrew the democratically elected president, Jacobo Arbenz, and installed the military regime of Carlos Castillo Armas.

• Succession of Power: Armas was followed by a series of right-wing military dictatorships for several decades.

• The Conflict: Between $1960$ and $1996$, Guatemala suffered a violent civil war between the military government and various leftist groups.

• The Reign of Efraín Ríos Montt:

  • In March $1982$, General Ríos Montt overthrew the sitting president and seized charge of Guatemala.

  • He forced civilians into patrol units designed to eliminate guerrilla forces.

  • Operation Sofia: A military campaign where the government targeted indigenous Maya communities.

  • Justification: Ríos Montt falsely claimed the Maya were communists and, therefore, atheists who needed to be eliminated. In reality, most Maya practiced traditional indigenous religions.

  • Human Cost: During his nearly two years in power, the military destroyed $440$ Maya villages and killed approximately $75,000$ people.

• Resistance and Activism:

  • Rigoberta Menchú: She became a prominent figure applying international pressure on the military government to return to democracy.

  • GAM (Grupo de Apoyo Mutuo / Mutual Support Group): Founded in $1984$ after the disappearance of a student leader. His wife, Nineth Montenegro, created the human rights organization to pressure the government for information on the "disappeared."

• Peace Process: Brokered by the United Nations, negotiations occurred between $1994$ and $1996$, leading to a final peace agreement.

Civil War in El Salvador ($1979$–$1992$)

• Root Causes: Growing economic hardship, increased food prices, political corruption, and the stripping of civil liberties from Salvadorans.

• Rise of Violence: Death squads began operating in the countryside and eventually became integrated into the military.

• JRG (Junta Revolucionaria de Gobierno): A civilian-military group that overthrew the president in October $1979$. While initially supported by the Jimmy Carter administration, the Reagan administration later sought to destabilize the region.

• Land Reform: The JRG enacted land reform, which US officials perceived as a sign of communism, angering elites and leading to further violence.

• Assassination of Archbishop Óscar Romero: On March $24$, $1980$, Romero was assassinated by the military while celebrating Mass. He was an outspoken activist against the Salvadoran government's oppression.

• US Involvement: President Ronald Reagan continued to fund the military against the leftist FMLN (Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front). In January $1991$, President George H.W. Bush stopped funds of approximately $5,000,000$ at that time.

• Resolution: UN-brokered peace planning began in $1990$ and concluded in $1992$.

The Nicaraguan Revolution and the Somoza Dynasty

• Early US Involvement: The United States occupied Nicaragua in the $1920s$ to prevent other nations from building a canal.

• Augusto César Sandino: A guerrilla leader who fought to expel US Marines. The Marines eventually withdrew in $1933$ due to the Great Depression making overseas occupation difficult.

• The Somoza Dynasty ($1937$–$1979$):

  • Anastasio Somoza García: He ordered the death of Sandino and overthrew the government in $1937$, establishing a nearly forty-year family dictatorship.

  • Corruption: By the end of the $1940s$, Somoza had acquired a fortune of nearly $400,000,000$.

  • US Relations: Despite the corruption, the US supported the family to stop communism. Franklin D. Roosevelt famously remarked, "Somoza may be a son of a bitch, but he's our son of a bitch."

  • Key Transitions: After Anastasio was killed in $1956$, his oldest son Luis took charge, followed by continued rule by his sons.

• Catalysts for the $1979$ Revolution:

  • The $1972$ earthquake in Managua, where the government embezzled international aid.

  • The $1978$ assassination of publisher Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal, which upset the middle and upper classes.

  • A shift in US policy under President Carter in $1977$, focusing on human rights issues.

• The FSLN (Sandinistas): In July $1979$, the Sandinistas overthrew the Somoza dictatorship and established a revolutionary government.

The Contra War and Women's Roles

• US Reaction: In $1981$, President Reagan signed National Security Directive $17$, authorizing covert support for anti-Sandinista forces known as the "Contras."

• The Conflict: A civil war ensued between the Sandinista government and the CIA-backed Contras.

• Women in the Revolution:

  • Women participated in significantly higher numbers compared to other Latin American revolutions.

  • AMNLAE: The Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan Women was created in $1979$ to boost participation and secure international aid.

  • The Iconic Image: A famous photograph from this era depicts a woman smiling while breastfeeding her baby and holding a rifle; this illustrated the duality of being both a fighter and a mother raising the next generation.

• Political End: In $1990$, Sandinista candidate Daniel Ortega lost the presidency to Violeta Chamorro.

Primary Source Analysis: Reagan and Ortega

• Ronald Reagan’s Remarks ($1983$):

  • Date: March $10$, $1983$.

  • Core Argument: Reagan argued that communists created guerrilla movements in El Salvador that threatened democracy. He claimed Nicaragua would become a base for the Soviet Union and Cuba.

  • Language and Tone: Urgent and patriotic. He used terms like "Cuban henchmen" and "totalitarianism."

  • Strategy: He utilized the "Domino Theory," suggesting that if communism was not stopped in Cuba or Nicaragua, it would spread and lead to the destruction of democracy.

• Daniel Ortega’s Speech ($1985$):

  • Content: Ortega accused the US of state terrorism and aggression against Nicaragua by supporting anti-government forces.

  • Strategy: He used casualty statistics to gain international sympathy and frame the US as an invader. He utilized aggressive terms such as "invasion," "terrorism," and "sovereignty."

• Iran-Contra Scandal: When Congress passed the Boland Amendment to make funding the Contras illegal, Reagan’s administration illegally sold weapons to Iran and funneled those profits to the Contras without Congressional knowledge.

Final Project and Presentation Guidelines

• Deliverables: A $5$ to $8$ slide digital presentation (PowerPoint, Google Slides, or Canva) and a $5$ to $7$ minute oral presentation.

• Topics: Any topic related to modern Latin American history from independence to the present.

• Core Questions to Address:

  • Why was the event significant?

  • What factors led to this development?

  • How did different groups experience this event?

  • How does the topic reflect larger themes in Latin American history?

• Components: Must include a strong argument/claim, historical background/context, evidence from sources, and a Works Cited page (MLA, APA, or Chicago style).

Slide 1: Title Slide

• Title: Women in the Nicaraguan Revolution

• Subtitle: Their Roles and Impact

• Your Name

• Date

Slide 2: Background

• The Nicaraguan Revolution happened in 1979.

• It aimed to overthrow the Somoza dictatorship.

• Many people, including women, fought for change.

Slide 3: Women’s Participation

• Women fought alongside men in the revolution.

• They played many roles: combatants, nurses, and organizers.

• Their involvement was key to the revolution's success.

Slide 4: The Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association (AMNLAE)

• AMNLAE was created in 1979.

• It helped women join the revolution and gain support.

• Focused on women's rights and community improvement.

Slide 5: Iconic Images

• Famous photo of a woman breastfeeding and holding a rifle.

• Represents the strength of women as both fighters and caregivers.

• Symbol of women’s vital role in the revolution.

Slide 6: Challenges After the Revolution

• Women faced difficulties even after the revolution succeeded.

• Continued struggle for equality and rights in society.

• Efforts to gain more visibility and representation.

Slide 7: Conclusion

• Women greatly contributed to the Nicaraguan Revolution.

• Their roles helped shape the country’s future.

• Questions for the audience: What can we learn from women in revolutions?