Study Notes on Likeness and Presence by Hans Belting

Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image before the Era of Art

Authorship and Publication

  • Author: Hans Belting

  • Role: Professor of art history and media theory at the School for New Media at Karlsruhe.

  • Other Works: Known for works such as "The End of the History of Art?".

  • Publisher: The University of Chicago Press, published in 1994.

  • Original Publication: The book was originally published in German as Bild und Kult.

  • ISBN: 0-226-04214-6 - Cloth edition

Historical Context and Coverage

Frontispiece Description

  • Image: Roman Pantheon with an icon of the Madonna and Child, dated A.D. 609.

  • Repetition: Color version appears in the gallery following page 264.

Introduction to the Crisis of the Image

  • Main Subject: The crisis surrounding the representation and significance of images, especially in a Christian context during the Reformation.

  • Luther’s Influence: Luther emphasized the cross as central to Christian faith, marking a critical shift in the perception of images in religious contexts.

  • Consecration of Chapel: Luther consecrated Schloss Hartenfels, the first Protestant church, on October 5, 1544.

    • Significance of Imagery: The images chosen reflected the key themes of doctrine (the image of Christ), grace (the adulteress), and justice (the money changers).

    • Luther’s Perspective: Emphasized that the chapel was a space for communication solely through God’s word.

Shift from Image to Art in Renaissance Painting

Personal Tragedies of Artists

  • Discussion of Lucas Cranach mourning his son's death and blaming the Renaissance art movement influenced by Italy as a source of divine punishment.

  • Luther reassured him about the separation of guilt in matters of art and religion.

A Return to Antiquity

  • Dürer’s Influence: Dürer’s writings reflect a revival of antiquity through Italic influences, where painting is argued to be systematic and based on rules, akin to science.

  • Artistic Professionalization: The emerging market for paintings changed the perception and appreciation of artworks.

    • Dürer articulated that “straightforward painting gives pleasure rather than vexation” when it adheres to artistic rules.

    • Verification of Themes: Reflected in Dürer’s reference to his own works and the demand for scientifically painted themes (e.g., Veronica).

Theoretical Foundations of Art

  • Italian theorization about painting began with Leon Battista Alberti, who created a guideline that raised painting’s status among liberal arts.

  • Prior to this, images were seen as sacred manifestations, now subjected to epistemological and optical accuracy.

    • Art reflected both imitation of nature and the imagination of the artist.

  • Savonarola’s Critique: Saw art as a distraction from God; advocated for a return to simplicity.

The Dual Nature of Images

New Approaches in Artistic Expression

  • Emergence of two classes of imagery: traditional devotional themes and modern allegorical themes.

    • Artists like Titian created works that generated both veneration from the faithful and financial gain.

  • Reflection on the Crisis of Images: Shifting perspectives from literal representations to the exploration of artistic ideas behind works.

    • Bellini's Madonna del Prato reflects an interrelation between figures, landscapes, and metaphors related to nature and resurrection symbolism.

Cross-Reference of Art and Poetry

  • Dynamic competition arose between painting and poetry revolving around the depiction of nature.

  • The influence of classical literature (e.g., Virgil) on artistic motifs reflects a comprehensive understanding of both art forms.

  • The significance of still life in painting indicated a shift toward capturing reality, transcending previous religious motifs.

Complex Representations of Religious Figures

  • Joos van Cleve’s Art: Delved into the juxtaposition of traditional depictions (like the Virgin) with innovative interpretations, invoking quotes from historical artists.

  • Complete subversion from a literal approach to a layered perception of images.

  • The icon became a symbolic frame within a broader artistic narrative.

Subsequent Developments in Artistry

Mannerism and Traditional Value

  • Maarten van Heemskerck promoted Italian artistic theories through works symbolizing the intricacies of painting.

  • The integration of ancient ideals into Renaissance painting while retaining key iconography showcased the evolution in artistic interpretations of religious subject matter.

The Artistic Debate

  • The discourse around Raphael’s Sistine Madonna prompted discussions on the religious and aesthetic implications of Renaissance works.

  • Conflicted views on whether Renaissance aesthetics were a mere reflection of classical ideals or held deeper spiritual meaning.

Conclusion: The Lucrative Transformation of Art

  • Transition from mere devotional idols to significant art pieces opened pathways for financial success for artists, reflecting broader cultural shifts.

  • Recognition of two worlds within imagery: the sacred and the artistic, representing the duality embraced by Renaissance thinkers and artists.