Psychological Theories Study Notes

Chapter 4: Psychological Theories

Introduction to Psychological Theories

  • Focus on psychoanalytic and personality theories of criminal and deviant behavior.
  • Exclusion of other psychological approaches (e.g., behavioral, neuropsychological, developmental) that will be covered in subsequent chapters.
  • Behavioral learning theory influences social learning theory (Chapter 5).
  • Developmental psychology applied with biological and personality emphases in criminology (Chapter 3) and in life-course theories (Chapter 14).
  • Emphasis on the individual's experiences, particularly from childhood, and environmental triggers for criminal behavior.
  • Theories propose that abnormal personality traits or emotional maladjustment are primary causes of crime.

Psychoanalytic Theory

  • Shares the quest for causes of crime within the individual, unlike biological theories which look for biological processes.
  • According to Kate Friedlander (1947), Freudian explanations focus on disturbances in emotional development from early childhood.
  • Key elements of Freudian psychoanalytic theory:
    • Id: Represents irrational, antisocial, and instinctual impulses residing in the unconscious.
    • Ego: The rational conscious part of the mind that gains control over the id.
    • Superego: Represents conscience and moral principles, evolving from identification with the same-sex parent.
Stages of Emotional Maturation
  • Stages rooted in sexuality include:
    1. Oral Phase: Infancy
    2. Anal Phase: Up to age 3
    3. Phallic Phase: Up to age 5
    4. Latency Phase: Up to puberty
    5. Genital Phase: Adulthood
  • Conflicts during the phallic stage (Oedipus and Electra complexes) result in repression of feelings for the opposite-sex parent.
  • Abnormal emotional development or fixation at these stages can lead to adolescent antisocial behavior due to unconscious guilt struggles.
Causes of Criminal Behavior
  • Criminal behavior is viewed as a symptom of psychic conflict between the id, ego, and superego due to:
    • Abnormal maturation or control of instincts.
    • Poor early relationships with caregivers.
    • Fixation at a developmental stage leading to repressed sexuality or guilt.
  • Individuals with suppressed conflicts may seek punishment unconsciously to alleviate guilt.
  • Psychoanalytic explanations emphasize irrational, unconscious motivations behind crime, associating law violations with underlying mental illnesses.
Empirical Validity of Psychoanalytic Theory
  • Difficulty in assessing validity due to the hidden nature of motivations in the unconscious.
  • Current psychoanalytic applications remain more interpretative and less empirical.
  • Case studies reflect diverse outcomes, with many studies lacking comparisons to general populations.
  • Flora Schreiber (1984) linked the criminality of Joseph Kallinger to childhood psychological abuse, emphasizing a cause-and-effect relationship.
Limitations of Psychoanalytic Theory
  • Tautological issues where diagnoses of psychological deviation often reflect habitual criminality rather than distinct causes.
  • Minimal contemporary relevance as Andrews and Bonta (1998) claim classic psychoanalytic thought doesn't represent modern psychological knowledge.
  • Calls for a psychosocial approach integrating social structures and individual subconscious conflicts (Gadd and Jefferson, 2007).

Personality Theory

  • Shifts focus from unconscious motivations to identifying specific criminal personality traits.
  • Differentiates delinquents based on personality traits such as impulsiveness, aggression, and sensation-seeking.
  • Two versions of personality theory:
    1. Trait Theory: Expresses criminal behaviors through various deviant personality traits.
    2. Type Theory: Proposes a single psychopathic or antisocial personality type responsible for serious criminal acts.
Role of Personality Traits
  • Empirical testing through personality inventories:
    • Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and California Psychological Inventory (CPI) commonly used.
    • MMPI measures psychiatric traits; CPI focuses on personality characteristics like sociability.
  • Past research indicates that institutionalized delinquents exhibit higher scores in antisocial behaviors than non-delinquents but correlations can lack robustness.
Evaluating Personality Trait Theories
  • Studies have demonstrated mixed results, with some finding significant differences while others reveal weak correlations.
  • Tautological issues can arise, particularly in inventory items' overlap with law-breaking behaviors.
  • Some studies propose conduct disorder as symptomatic rather than causative of deviant behavior.

Psychopathic Personality

  • Psychopathy characterized by a self-centered and aggressive personality with low emotional attachment and guilt (McCord & McCord, 1956).
  • Robert Hare's Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R) measures psychopathic traits:
    • 20-item assessment, including traits of charm, manipulation, and lack of remorse.
    • A high prevalence among prison populations, accounting for 20% of inmates but over 50% of serious crimes.
Nature vs. Nurture in Psychopathy
  • Hare advocates for understanding psychopathy as influenced by genetic, biological, and environmental factors, arguing not all psychopaths are criminals.
  • A distinction exists between general criminal behavior and the specific traits of psychopathy, but empirical validation remains contentious.
Alternative Measures of Psychopathy
  • Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) focuses solely on personality traits, avoiding behavioral confounding.
  • Studies link various traits to both positive and negative social outcomes, with a notable differential predictive validity regarding antisocial behavior.

The Five-Factor Model (FFM)

  • Developed by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae to provide a robust model for understanding personality traits across various contexts.
  • Identifies five main factors (OCEAN):
    • Openness: Willingness to engage in new experiences.
    • Conscientiousness: Ability to control impulses.
    • Extraversion: Sociability and energy levels.
    • Agreeableness: Ability to interact positively with others.
    • Neuroticism: Disposition towards negative emotions.
Application of FFM in Antisocial Behavior
  • Strong negative associations found between Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and antisocial behavior.
  • Newer methods have begun to resolve tautological issues by focusing on personality traits instead of their overlaps with delinquent behavior.
Limitations and Implementations
  • Critics argue the FFM does not fully explain causation and that traits may not predict behavior without context.
  • Personality might act as a moderator in behavioral responses rather than a direct causal factor.

Psychological Counseling in Delinquency Prevention and Treatment

  • Treatment models based on psychoanalytic and personality theories prioritize psychological counseling for delinquents, focusing on emotional and personality issues rather than punitive measures.
  • Historical effectiveness of these approaches shows mixed results, with many programs failing to reduce recidivism rates and, in some cases, exacerbating issues.
Historical Treatment Programs
  1. Wayne County Clinic (1920s-1940s) targeted publicly identified delinquents but saw no meaningful impact on recidivism.
  2. Cambridge-Somerville Youth Study (1937-1945) aimed to reduce delinquency through individual counseling but ended up with greater repeat offenses among treated youths.
  3. Youth Consultation Project yielded similar results with no significant differences in behavior between treated and control groups.
Critical Viewpoints on Treatment Effectiveness
  • Hare suggests that therapies for psychopaths often prove ineffective or harmful, reinforcing the need for caution in implementing psychological interventions for individuals with severe personality disorders.
Conclusion on Counseling and Effectiveness
  • Psychoanalytic and personality trait theories suggest criminal behavior arises from deep-seated psychological issues requiring targeted treatment.
  • Contemporary evidence indicates minimal success in rehabilitating offenders through psychological interventions, reinforcing the complexity of addressing the interplay between personality and criminal behavior.