US Expansionism & The Progressive Era

Spanish-American War: Continued

• Racial Undercurrents: Secretary of State John Hay referred to Cubans as "little brown brothers," implying white Americans would help a "lesser group" run their democracy.

• True Objectives: The Maine explosion in Havana Harbor ($1898$) led to war with Spain, but the US military's first action was to send a fleet to the Philippines, not Cuba. The actual goal was acquiring "stepping stones" for trade access to the Asian market (especially China).

• The Philippines Conflict: Filipinos, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, were already fighting Spanish rule. The US initially allied with Aguinaldo, but when the US tried to control the Philippines after defeating Spain, Aguinaldo and his forces fought against American rule. The Philippine-American War lasted ~$5$ years, resulting in ~$4,000$ American deaths (vs. ~$400$ in Cuba) and tens of thousands of Filipino deaths. The Philippines became part of the American empire until WWII.

• Imperialism: The war exemplified US imperialism, mirroring European powers, driven by economic motives disguised by rhetoric of "freeing" people.

US Foreign Policy Tools

• Dollar Diplomacy ($1908$-$1912$ - President Taft): US military intervention in Central American nations (e.g., Guatemala, Honduras) to protect American economic interests, especially in the food industry. This was a clear assertion of US control over independent nations.

• Open Door Policy (China): As China's empire collapsed, world powers sought to dominate its market. The US, late to the "scramble," proposed an "open door" policy, advocating for free market access for all nations. This was framed as laissez-faire capitalism but served US access to markets it couldn't dominate outright.

• Panama Canal: Essential for faster shipping between Atlantic and Pacific. France failed to build it. When Colombia (which controlled Panama) refused US terms, President Theodore Roosevelt instigated a Panamanian rebellion, leading to Panama's independence. The new Panamanian government granted the US control over the canal zone, an example of US meddling for commercial gain.

The Progressive Era ($1900$-$1914/18$)

• Context: A period of reform in response to the problems of the Gilded Age ($1877$-$1900$), targeting industrial excesses, big business, and governmental corruption. Reformers, called Progressives, sought coordinated efforts to improve society.

• Socialism (Contrast):

  • Core Idea: Wealth is collectively created but concentrated among a few; advocated for collective (societal) ownership of businesses, with profits funding public services to benefit all.

  • Political Impact: Socialists, like Eugene Debs (presidential candidate), gained ~$3-5$% of national votes and won mayoralties in hundreds of cities (e.g., Milwaukee).

  • Industrial Workers of the World (IWW): A radical union advocating for "one big union" of all workers to overthrow capitalism and establish worker control of industries and government.

  • Progressives vs. Socialists: Progressives were seen as less radical compared to socialists, who sought revolutionary change.

• Muckrakers (Investigative Journalists): Exposed societal corruption and injustice.

  • Lincoln Steffens: Shame of the Cities (urban political corruption).

  • Ida Tarbell: History of the Standard Oil Company (exposed Rockefeller's corrupt business practices).

  • David Graham Phillips: Treason of the Senate (senators beholden to corporate interests).

  • Upton Sinclair: The Jungle (intended to expose immigrant worker exploitation in meatpacking but outraged readers with descriptions of unsanitary food production, leading to demands for regulation).

• The Progressive Impulse (Four Characteristics):

  1. End Abuses of Power: Reform corrupt government (local and state) and unfair business practices; make institutions more democratic and fair.

  2. Science and Efficiency: Apply scientific methods to analyze and solve social problems (e.g., causes of poverty); promote efficiency in government and industry.

  3. Experience: Emphasize direct, immersive understanding of problems (e.g., living among the poor) to inform solutions, rejecting "ivory tower" theorizing.

  4. Belief in Human Progress: Optimistic view that the US can always improve; push for better working conditions, greater equality, and societal betterment.

• Government Reforms:

  • City Manager Movement: Replaced partisan mayors with non-political, expert city managers to run municipal affairs efficiently and reduce corruption (e.g., Galveston's rebuilding post-hurricane).

  • Robert La Follette (Wisconsin Idea): Senator and Governor of Wisconsin, a leading progressive.

    • Direct Democracy: Championed initiative, referendum, and recall, giving citizens more direct power in lawmaking and removing corrupt officials.

    • Business Regulation: Implemented regulations on railroad rates to limit excessive profits and protect farmers/businesses, distinguishing it from socialist collective ownership.

    • Corporate Wealth Tax: Advocated for taxing corporations, arguing wealth is collectively generated and should fund public services.

    • Primary Elections: Introduced primaries to allow voters to select party candidates, reducing the power of party bosses.

    • "Brain Trust": Employed university experts to advise on state policies (e.g., conservation, economics, health), emphasizing scientific expertise in governance.

• Social Reform Movements:

  • Social Justice vs. Social Control: Reforms often presented a tension between seeking fairness for society and attempts to control populations' behavior based on what reformers deemed "best."

  • Prohibition: An example where advocates argued for social justice (reducing poverty, domestic violence, health issues due to alcohol) but was often perceived as social control by immigrant communities (whose cultural practices involved alcohol) or workers. Prohibition was also driven by anti-immigrant sentiment.