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Community development in Aotearoa New Zealand has a historic engagement with government support and sponsorship
90% of non-profit organizations in New Zealand do not employ any staff and rely on volunteers
A third of New Zealanders over the age of 14 volunteer through an organization each month
64% of New Zealanders belong to a club, voluntary group, church, or Marae
The proportion of volunteers in the non-profit workforce is unusually high compared to other countries
Aotearoa New Zealand offers fertile territory for community development
Strong communal bonds due to Indigenous heritage
High levels of trust in others
69% of New Zealanders express high levels of trust in others
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Different Community Development Models in Aotearoa New Zealand
Four quadrants based on the purpose and locus of control
Quadrants A and B represent "empowerment" approaches, while C and D represent "engagement" approaches
Quadrants A and C can be considered "collaborative" approaches, while B and D can be considered "confrontational" approaches
Community development practice should be considered across all four quadrants
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Origins of Community Development in Aotearoa New Zealand
Communal activities of Ma¯ori before colonization
Models brought by settlers from the United Kingdom, including charitable and self-help approaches
Proliferation of voluntary associations and interest groups
The first concerted attempts to establish formal community development in 1937 with the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act
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The government established a community development program within government departments to create a welfare state.
Physical Welfare Officers were the first group of statutory community development workers.
They had roles in policy development, project implementation, and funding support for community organizations.
The government promoted and funded community centers as local community focal points.
131 centers were erected by 1956, and around 350 by 1970.
The Unit's capacity-building programs helped plant nearly 500 clubs and organizations across more than 220 communities.
They trained 1,480 community and youth leaders and over 900 sports coaches.
New Zealand has a historic tendency to rely on the central government for support.
Community development in New Zealand often involves collaboration with the government.
The landscape of community development in New Zealand is complex and multifaceted.
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The establishment of the Women's Christian Temperance Union and their campaigns led to social change practices in New Zealand.
Maori faced serious development challenges due to colonization.
They were marginalized and lost 90% of their assets through confiscations or land sales.
Maori employed various strategies, including confrontation and collaboration, to address these challenges.
The Ratana Church sought economic development, modernization, and ratification of the Treaty of Waitangi.
The Ratana Church formed a political wing and allied with the Labour Party.
The Maori Social and Economic Advancement Act of 1945 provided a framework for Maori self-determination.
Rapid urbanization and immigration in the 1950s highlighted new social issues in New Zealand.
Community development became a field of practice in New Zealand in the 1970s.
Maori anger over the loss of sovereignty, land, culture, and recognition reached a critical juncture in the 1970s.
Activist groups like Nga Tamatoa and the Bastion Point occupation fought for Maori rights and confronted injustices.
Opposition to nuclear testing and warships' visits also emerged as key issues in the 1970s and 1980s.
The gay rights movement in New Zealand advocated for decriminalization and community-building.
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Gay communities in New Zealand played a significant role in responding to AIDS.
The New Zealand AIDS Foundation was established in 1985.
Gay lobbyists argued that openness would prevent new infections.
Local authorities took on a community development role.
Auckland City Council was the first to create a community development unit in 1970.
Manukau City Council appointed a Social Services Officer in 1966 to promote coordination between voluntary and community organizations.
Local authority community advisers were involved in various activities such as organizing Citizen Advice Bureaux, setting up community houses and centers, establishing school holiday programs, coordinating local services, promoting recreation programs, working with local groups, conducting research on social issues, and creating networks of local people.
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The sixth National Community Development Conference in Manukau in 1988 was a turning point for local authorities.
The conference emphasized the centrality of community development for effective local government.
The 1974 Local Government Act provided a mandate for involvement in community development and recreation.
The 2002 Local Government Act promoted the "four well-beings" (social, economic, environmental, and cultural) and required consultative decision-making.
Community development staff, communities, and community groups had opportunities for empowerment through the Act.
Support for the community development role came primarily from liberal-conservative councilors.
Local authorities' involvement in community development was supported by national government grants.
The Department of Internal Affairs added a Youth Services Branch and appointed Youth Service Workers to develop youth-focused programs.
The Department of Social Welfare coordinated social welfare activities and supported community-based service delivery.
Te Ko¯hanga Reo (language nests) was established in 1981 to revive the Ma¯ori language.
The Department of Ma¯ori Affairs employed community development workers and promoted cultural and economic advancement.
Other details:
The Department of Social Welfare's primary purpose was for all people in New Zealand to participate within their communities.
There are over 460 Te Ko¯hanga Reo established around the country, catering to over 9000 children.
Community development approaches were evident in other central government programs such as health promotion, crime prevention, and community employment.
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Chile warns about the difficulty of distinguishing between community development and social control in statutory agencies
Workers struggle to determine if their practice is empowering communities or functioning as agents of social control
In 1984, the Labour government implemented neoliberal reforms in public administration
Market-oriented strategies such as deregulation, privatization, outsourcing, and performance management were adopted
New Public Management ideology was implemented in Aotearoa New Zealand more thoroughly than in any other country
The new approach is based on agency theory and public choice theory
Conceptualizes everything as a series of contracts between principals and agents
Focuses on control and accountability to ensure agents act in the principal's interests
This led to an "audit explosion" and increased regulatory role for the Department of Social Welfare
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The purchase-of-service contracting ideology shifted the government's relationship with voluntary and community organizations
The government became an arm's-length purchaser of tightly specified outputs
Voluntary and community organizations became conduits for public service provision
Accountability and responsiveness are prioritized, while collaboration and developmental relationships are undermined
Increased competition undermines collaboration and networking
Outputs that are harder to measure or result in longer-term changes are not funded
Community development loses funding and political traction
Control shifts from communities and clients to government funders
Volunteering and fund-raising are reduced to inputs, active participation, and wide leadership are no longer a concern
The system designed on Theory X breeds distrust and undermines trust
Cooperation is squeezed out by the drive for efficiency
Networking and relationship-building are not prioritized
Disenchantment with contractualism grows, even among proponents of New Public Management
Department of Social Welfare warns that purchase-of-service contracting may not be sufficient to maintain a healthy nonprofit sector
Political support for change in policy direction emerges, with recognition of the importance of building strong communities
A New Labour-led government was elected in 1999 with a commitment to replace the contract culture with a partnership with community organizations
Some changes are made, but mainstream funding arrangements remain largely intact
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The reasons for the decline of community development in New Zealand are unclear.
Public servants may have believed that there was no alternative to neoliberalism.
The reforms in New Zealand were the entire managerial system, making it difficult to dismantle them.
Government efforts focused on direct service delivery rather than building the capabilities of communities.
The 2002 Local Government Act acknowledged the role of local government in community development.
The National-led government in 2008 reversed previous adjustments and weakened local authorities' roles in enabling civil society.
Funding reforms were implemented, including new purposes and guidelines for Ministry of Social Development funding and trialing social impact bonds.
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Market mechanisms were increasingly used in public policy, including an investment approach and outcome-based agreements.
The Whānau Ora program, initiated by the Ministry of Māori Development, provided flexible and holistic social support and development.
Funding was transferred from the Community Organisation Grants Scheme to fund a trial of a community-led development approach.
The term "community development" was removed from the Department of Internal Affairs' manual.
Despite a hostile policy environment, community development has survived in New Zealand.
Promising examples include residents' groups, sustainability movements, and Iwi-based developments.
Inspiring Communities has been promoting the concept of community development since 2008.
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Signs of an enabling environment for community development
Launch of Wanake: The Pacific Journal of Community Development in 2015
Successful national community development conference in Auckland
Withdrawal of public funding and government personnel may benefit community development
Allows for criticism of government policy
Promotes local initiative and control
Provides room for aggressive tactics and direct action
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Recommendations for funders to improve their impact
Pay the full cost of running programs
Allow communities to use their funds for their needs and priorities
Use untied operating grants to enable flexibility, innovation, and responsiveness
Dare to be different and fund unpopular causes and important initiatives
Take risks and be patient for long-term changes
Recommendations for investing in learning and evaluation
Use existing evidence and evaluation literature
Rely on defensible theories of change or program logic
Encourage groups to do their own learning and share lessons
Emphasize relational accountability over paper-based reporting systems
Use crowd-sourcing transparency to inform local communities about funding
Avoid being too rigid about predetermined outcomes
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Actions for community groups and activists to create a fertile environment for community development
Collaborate and respect different approaches to community development
Balance the "power" approach (emphasizing conflict) and the "program" approach (emphasizing consensus and cooperation)
Stop relying solely on government contracts for funding
Develop sources of untied and self-funding to maintain independence and increase leverage in negotiations
Focus on vision, mission, and values to avoid being diverted by public policy fashions
Page 14: Non-negotiable "bottom lines" and the importance of keeping a double set of books
Non-negotiable "bottom lines" should be relentlessly pursued and constantly visible
They should be used to orient new people to the group and guide governance, staff, volunteer, and member meetings
They should also be used as criteria for making significant decisions and tough prioritizing
Keeping a double set of books is important when external agencies impose inappropriate or predetermined outcomes and measures on a group
Giving more attention to what is measured and reported can divert attention from the group's deep intentions and accountability to the communities they serve
Notes:
Ma¯ori are the indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand
The term "community-led development" is used in Aotearoa New Zealand to distinguish this approach from the broader field of community development practice
Kohanga is a Ma¯ori language immersion early childhood education program in New Zealand
In Aotearoa New Zealand, funding for developmental activities was squeezed out due to a shift in government support
Social capital, which includes trust, norms, and networks, is important in community development practice
Page 67: The impact of public policy on community development
Changes in public policy in Aotearoa New Zealand had a significant impact on community development
These changes included reviews, the establishment of a Minister and an Office for the Community and Voluntary Sector, and a cross-government program to promote "good practice"
Initiatives were piloted to promote "joined up" funding, reduce compliance costs, and establish more long-term and stable funding
Plans to address part-funded contracts were also considered
However, there were subsequent changes that reversed some of these initiatives and undermined community development efforts
The Office for the Community and Voluntary Sector and Charities Commission were gutted, and the Statement of Government Intentions for Improved Community-Government Relationships was replaced
Moves towards full funding of "essential social services" were also reversed
Other information:
The term "silos" refers to different frameworks sponsored by different entities that aim to work in partnership with communities, improve service integration, and build community capability
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References
Aimers, J. and Walker, P. (2009) "Community Development as 'Knowledge Intersections' in Contemporary New Zealand"
Paper presented at the Community Development Journal's Community Development Symposium, Community Development in an Age of Uncertainty, London.
Aimers, J. and Walker, P. (2015) "Can Community Development Practice Survive Neoliberalism in Aotearoa New Zealand?"
Published in the Community Development Journal.
Bernstein, S. (1991) "Managing Contracted Services in the Nonprofit Agency: Administrative, Ethical and Practical Issues"
Published by Temple University Press.
Brickell, C. (2014) "Gay Men's Lives: Gay Activism and Law Reform"
Retrieved from www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/gay-men’s-lives/page-2
Callahan, S., Mayer, N., Palmer, K. and Ferlazzo, L. (1999) "Rowing the Boat with Two Oars"
Paper presented at the On-Line Conference on Community Organizing and Development.
Retrieved from https://comm-org.wisc.edu/papers99/callahan.htm
Chile, L. (2006) "The Historical Context of Community Development in Aotearoa New Zealand"
Published in the Community Development Journal, 41(4): 407–425.
Department of Internal Affairs (DIA) (1997) "Building Strong Communities: A Thinkpiece"
Published by DIA.
Department of Internal Affairs (DIA) (2001) "A Framework for Developing Sustainable Communities: Discussion Paper"
Published by DIA.
Department of Internal Affairs (DIA) (2011) "Review of Selected New Zealand Government-Funded Community Development Programmes"
Published by DIA.
Department of Social Welfare (DSW) (1996) "Strategic Directions: Post-Election Briefing Paper, 1996"
Published by DSW.
Haigh, D. (2014) "Community Development and New Zealand Local Authorities in the 1970s and 1980s"
Published in New Zealand Sociology, 29(1): 79–97.
Hess, D. (1999) "Community Organizing, Building and Developing: Their Relationship to Comprehensive Community Initiatives"
Paper presented at COMM-ORG: The On-Line Conference on Community Organizing and Development.
Retrieved from http://comm-org.wisc.edu/papers.htm
Higgens, J. (1997) "Transparency and Trade-Offs in Policy Discourse: A Case Study of Social Service Contracting"
Published in the Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, Issue 9: 1–15.
Hill, R.S. (2009) "Ma¯ori and the State: Crown–Ma¯ori Relations in New Zealand/Aotearoa, 1950–2000"
Published by Victoria University Press.
Kearns, K.P. (1996) "Managing for Accountability: Preserving the Public Trust in Public and Nonprofit Organisations"
Published by Jossey-Bass.
Larner, W., and Craig. D. (2005) "After Neoliberalism? Community Activism and Local Partnerships in Aotearoa New Zealand"
Published in Antipode, 37(3): 9–31.
Loomis, T. (2012) "Community-Led Development in Aotearoa New Zealand: Dead End or New Opportunity?"
Unpublished paper available from the author at loomistm@yahoo.com
Nowland-Foreman, G. (1998) "Purchase-of-Service Contracting, Voluntary Organisations, and Civil Society: Dissecting the Goose that Lays the Golden Eggs?"
Published in the American Behavioral Scientist, 42(1): 108–123.
Nyland, J. (1993) "Little Fingers of the State: Aggressive Instrumentalism in the Australian Welfare State"
Published in the conference proceedings of Power, Politics, and Performance: Community Management in the 90s.
O'Brien, M, Sanders, J. and Tennant, M. (2009) "The New Zealand Non-Profit Sector and Government Policy"
Published by the Office for the Community and Voluntary Sector.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2014) "Society at a Glance 2014: OECD Social Indicators"
Published by the OECD.
Power, M. (1994) "The Audit Explosion"
Published by Demos.
Putnam, R.D. (1993) "The Prosperous Community: Social Capital and Public Life"
Published in The American Prospect, Issue 13: 35–42.
Sanders, J., O'Brien, M., Tennant, M., Wojciech Sokolowski, S. and Salamon, L.M. (2008) "The New Zealand Non-Profit Sector in Comparative Perspective"
Published by the Office for the Community and Voluntary Sector.
Schick, A. (1996) "The Spirit of Reform: Managing New Zealand's State Sector in a Time of Change"
Published by the State Services Commission.
Schick, A. (2001) "Reflections on the New Zealand Model"
Published by The Treasury.
Nowland-Foreman 68
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References
Shannon, P. and Walker, P. (2006) "Community Development and Control in a State–Local Partnership in Aotearoa New Zealand"
Published in the Community Development Journal, 41(4): 506–520.
Statistics New Zealand (2001) "Around the Clock: Findings from the New Zealand Time Use Survey: 2014"
Published by Statistics New Zealand.
Statistics New Zealand (2015) "New Zealand General Social Survey: 2014"
Published by Statistics New Zealand.
Stoecker, R. (2001) "Power or Programs? Two Paths to Community Development"
Keynote Address to International Association for Community Development, Rotorua, New Zealand, April.
Tennant, M., O'Brien, M. and Sanders, J. (2008) "The History of the Non-Profit Sector in New Zealand"
Published by the Office for the Community and Voluntary Sector.
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