Chapter5

Information Processing Theory

Overview

  • Proposed by Dr. Saleha Idris.

  • Focuses on learning mechanisms using the "mind as computer" metaphor.

  • Information processing model examines the internal structures within a learner where information flows.

Information Processing Model

  • Describes the processes involved when information passes through various internal cognitive structures.

Three Kinds of Memory or "Stores"

  • Sensory Memory (SM)

  • Short-Term Memory (STM)

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Models of Memory

  • Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968): Proposed memory consists of multiple stores, rather than being centralized.

  • Memory involves a series of interconnected processes:
      - Sensory Memory
      - Short-Term Memory
      - Long-Term Memory

Information Loss

  • Sensory Memory: Loss occurs through decay.

  • Short-Term Memory: Loss through decay or displacement.

  • Long-Term Memory: Loss through decay or interference.

Information Flow

  • Incoming Information to Attention to Short-Term Memory to Retrieval to Long-Term Memory.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

  • Temporary store for information that is attended to.

Properties of STM

  • Capacity: Approximately 7 ± 2 “chunks” of information.

  • Duration: About 18-20 seconds on average.

  • Processing: Primarily auditory encoding; visual information converted to auditory form.

The Magical Number Seven

  • George Miller noted that the storage capacity of STM is around seven “chunks” (plus or minus two).

Maintenance Rehearsal

  • Method of retaining information in STM through repetition, either silently or aloud, to facilitate immediate recall.

Getting Information into STM

Three Major Concepts

  1. Attention to Interesting Features: Engaging with stimuli that stand out.

  2. Activation of Known Patterns: Relating new stimuli to prior knowledge.

  3. Identifying Important Information: Focusing on critical data within learning.

Retaining Information in STM

Two Major Concepts

  • Organization: Structuring information into categories or concepts for better retention.

  • Repetition: Recap the material after a brief delay, rather than immediately.

Methods of Organization

  • Component (part/whole): Categorize information.

  • Sequential: Order chronologically, cause/effect, or build to climax.

  • Relevance: Establish central unifying ideas or criteria.

  • Transitional (connective): Use relational words/phrases for qualitative change.

  • Chunking: Grouping information into manageable units as a key technique for STM retention.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

  • Functions to connect new information with previously learned material.

Properties of LTM

  • Capacity: Virtually unlimited.

  • Duration: Can last a lifetime.

  • Processing: Organized by meaning, associatively linked.

  • Encoding: Involves semantic, visual, and auditory methods.

Techniques for Transferring Information to LTM

  • Visual Imagery: Creating mental pictures (e.g., charts, graphs).

  • Coding Techniques: Using memory aids such as loci, pegword, rhymes, and acronyms (e.g., initial letter methods).

  • Meaningful Learning: Relating new information to known concepts.

Elaboration and Knowledge Base

  • Elaboration: Expanding on new concepts with what one already knows.

  • Knowledge Base: Existing information stored in LTM that aids new learning.

LTM and Retrieval Process

  • Factors contributing to how quickly and reliably information is recalled include:
      - Activation: Time since last engagement with the information.
      - Strength: Level of practice through organization, elaboration, and rehearsal.

Reasons for Forgetting

  1. Failure to Locate Information: Information exists but is inaccessible.

  2. Reconstruction Error: Retrieving only partial information from LTM.

  3. Interference: Competing information in LTM disrupts recall.

  4. Failure to Store: Information not adequately processed for storage.

  5. Decay: Information weakens over time without use.

Factors Affecting Retrieval

  1. Making Connections: The more connections made with existing knowledge, the easier it is to retrieve information.

  2. Learning Information to Mastery: Mastery aids recall and automaticity.

  3. Use of Information: Frequent practice improves recall capabilities.

  4. Relevant Retrieval Cues: Effective retrieval relies on cues that are meaningful.

Study Habits Implications

  • Understand the practical application of memory theories to enhance study strategies.

Strategies to Improve Reading Comprehension

  • Emphasis on understanding meaning rather than merely decoding words.

  • Comprehension Monitoring: Employ diverse strategies to derive meaning from texts.

Specific Comprehension Strategies

  • SQ3R and PQ4R methods focused on active reading skills.

PQ4R Method Steps

  1. Preview the material.

  2. Formulate Questions.

  3. Read with intent to answer the questions.

  4. Reflect and relate content to personal knowledge.

  5. Recite information after reading.

  6. Review key points and answers to questions.

SQ3R Steps

  1. Survey the material.

  2. Create Questions.

  3. Read actively.

  4. Recite information aloud or in writing.

  5. Review after reading.

Common Skills in Comprehension Strategies

  1. Setting Goals for Reading: Self-assessment of reading objectives and motivations.

  2. Focusing Attention: Prompting oneself with questions during reading.

  3. Self-Reinforcement: Positive self-talk based on understanding and strategy effectiveness.

  4. Coping with Problems: Recognizing difficulties and planning to revisit challenging content.

Exam Preparation Techniques

  • Reviewing previous exams helps identify recurring themes and necessary information to focus on.

Classroom Applications of Information Processing Approach

Teaching Principles

  • Use cues to signal readiness and gain attention.

  • Review and connect previous knowledge before introducing new content.

  • Use varied methods (e.g., visuals, handouts) to present information effectively.