Chapter 7: WWI

CONCEPTS

Five Underlying Causes of WWI

  1. Militarism (arms race)

    • competition to outdo each other’s militaries

    • the belief that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests

    • one European nation increases their military strength, rivals feel threatened and also build up

    • pushed Germany, Russia, and France to have big armies; Great Britain and Germany to have big navies

    • early 1900s

    • prioritizing military power over other societal needs, often placing military leaders in positions of government power

  2. Alliances

    • alliance system

    • a network of formal agreements between nations pledging to support each other, particularly in military defense

    • partnerships are designed to balance power, protect national security, and ensure that if one member is attacked, others will intervene, often turning local conflicts into larger

    • different nations promised to help one another if any one of them were attacked

    • by 1914 Europe was divided

    • Triple Alliance = Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

    • Triple Entente {an understanding among nations} = Great Britain, France, Russia

    • alliances were supposed to keep peace by creating an unchangeable balance of power

    • in the alliance system, a small 2-country dispute could → involvement of many other countries, triggering a larger war

  3. Imperialism

    • building an empire by taking over other smaller weaker countries

    • policy or action by which a stronger nation extends its power and control over weaker nations or territories

    • typically achieved through military force, economic domination, or political influence to gain resources, trade markets, and land

    • powerful European countries imperialized + formed great empires (late 1800s, early 1900s0

    • competition for colonies in Asia, Africa, + other parts of the world

    • colonies = new markets, raw materials, nation’s status increases

    • Great Britain, France (already have large empires) vs. Germany, Russia, Italy (wanted to increase their relatively meager colonial holdings) have conflicting desires to expand

  4. Nationalism

    • feeling of intense pride, proteciveness, and loyalty to one’s country or group

    • encouraged newly united nations (Germany, Italy) to show their power and prove themselves as the best, threatening older nations (Great Britain, France)

    • inspired some ethnic groups to break away from nations/empires of which they were a part (at times demanding their own nations)

  5. Assassination

    • inciting event

    • early 1900s: Balkan Peninsula = very nationalist, high ethnic feeling/sentiment

    • several nations argued over territory (Slavic nationalists wanted union of all the region’s Slavic people; Austro-Hungarian Slavs wanted independence, supported by the small country Serbia)

    • Gavrilo Princip (member of Serbian nationalist group) + his group plotted Franz Ferdinand (archduke)’s death to bring down Austro-Hungarian Empire + unite Slavs

    • Princip shot archduke & his wife

    • Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination and with Germany’s support gave a list of demands that Serbia refused. Austria-Hungary therefore declared war vs. Serbia in 1914. Russia prepared to protect Serbia. Germany supported Austria-Hungary and declared war against France and Russia + invaded Belgium. Great Britain thus declared war against Germany. (chain reaction)

Sides of WWI

Allied Powers (the Allies)

Great Britain, France, Russia

  • Japan was a rival of Germany in Asia and joined the Allies in August 1914

  • Italy refused to honor the alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, joining the Allies in 1915

Central Powers

Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire

Stalemate in WWI

Neither side could make progress. For the next 3 years opposing forces faced off from a network of trenches (which sheltered soldiers from bullets/artillery shells). In 1916 there were attempts to break the standstill with the Battle of Verdun and Battle of Somne.

New Weaponry in WWI

  • improved artillery fired larger shells + greater distances

  • better rifles allowed soldiers to hit targets w. greater accuracy

  • poison gas (initially used by Germany in April 1915; later adopted by Allies) could kill/seriously injure upon inhalation

  • armored tank (initally used by Allies in Jan. 1916; Germans followed suit, eventually using captured Allied tanks) used to break trench warfare stalemate, could cross into no-man’s land to fire at close range & crush barbed wire, making an easier route for troops

  • planes used to watch troop movements, bomb targets, engage in dogfights (initally only had machine guns on top wing)

  • zeppelins/blimps (German) bombed Allied cities

Naval Strategies in WWI

Blockades & Trade Disruptions

Great Britain blockaded all ports under German control, causing food and supply shortages.

Germany announced in Feb. 1915 that it would sink any vessels entering/exiting British ports with U-boats. Wilson consequently announced that the U.S. would hold Germany responsible for any U.S. fatalities in submarine attacks. Germany’s decision frightened Congress and influenced it to double the U.S. army and fund warship construction in the summer of 1916.

Sinking Ships

Germans used submarines/U-boats to sink ships at sea carrying supplies to Britain.

Unrestricted Warfare

On Jan. 1917, Germany announced it would sink on sight all merchant vessels on their way to Allied ports, regardless if they were armed or not.

(This sparked America’s decision to enter the war)

Germany used the strategy despite knowing that it risked bringing America into the war against them because they thought they could defeat the Allies before the U.S. could mount a serious war effort or impact the battlefield.

Convoy System

In order to ensure that supplies would reach Europe, the U.S. navy helped the British destroy and protect against German submarines.

The Allies used convoys that sailed in teams of navy ships side-by-side w. merchant ships across the Atlantic Ocean so that if a U-boat wanted to attack a merchant ship it’d have to face the risk of coming under attack by the armed ship escorts. This system worked well; Allied shipping losses went in a year from 900,000 tons/month → 300,000 tons/month and no Europe-bound U.S. soldiers were killed in submarine attacks.

U.S. Policy & Trade in Beginning of WWI

Initially, the U.S. was neutral (supported by most Americans, who didn’t believe the war concerned them). Much of America’s population was made of immigrants, some of which came from places that influenced their support of the Central Powers; most citizens favored the Allies because of the language, customs, and traditions linking Great Britain to the U.S. (Wilson was one such person).

Therefore, the U.S. sought trade with both sides as both powers needed a variety of goods America was happy to provide, but Britain’s blockade made trade with Germany difficult - eventually cutting Germany off from trade. The British navy stopped and searched U.S. ships headed → German ports, sometimes seizing goods (America said its ships should be allowed to pass, Britain said they were fighting for survival). While German trade was blocked, trade between America and Britain/Allies boomed. Britain and France borrowed billions of dollars from the U.S. to pay for their war efforts, upsetting the Germans as the “neutral” U.S. was aiding the allies.

Thus, between trade and loans, WWI initially caused an economic boom in America.

Propaganda’s Role in WWI

Both sides used info designed to influence opinions.

ALLIED propaganda stressed the German cruelty (calling them “barbarians”) and their invasion of neutral Belgium. It was more effective than Central Power propaganda on America because of British sympathy.

Women in WWI

Women enlisted in special forces for the first time in noncombat roles such as radio operators, clerks, and nurses.

African Americans in WWI

30,000+ joined the armed forces and were forced to serve in segregated units. They suffered unfair treatment and racism. Most had low-level jobs at military bases. Of 140,000 African American soldiers sent to Europe, 40,000 saw combat, many serving with honor (one regiment received medals for bravery from France, including Henry Johnson)

FIGURES

Woodrow Wilson

President at the time of WWI

Arthur Zimmerman

German foreign minister who sent the Zimmerman Telegram

Henry Johnson

An African American soldier and the 1st American to receive France’s Cross of War, a medal for bravery

EVENTS

Assassination of Franz Ferdinand

See concepts → 5 underlying causes of WWI → assassination

War accordingly declared in1914

Battle of the Marne

When: N/A

Where: Marne River

Who won: Allied Forces

Who was involved: Germany, France, Britain

Goal: to quickly defeat France and proceed east to Russia

Outcome: stopped German advance and made it clear that neither side could win quickly or easily

Upon its invasion by Germans, Belgium held out for nearly 3 weeks, giving France & Britain time to react. Once it overcame the Belgians, Germany marched to France within 15 miles of Paris, where it was met by France and Britain at the Marne River.

Battle of Verdun

When: Feb 1916

Where: northeastern France

Who won: N/A

Who was involved: France, Germany

Goal: break the standstill in WWI

Outcome: over 750,000 French and German fatalities

Incited by Germany, this battle was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of the war, ending in December of 1916.

Battle of Somme

When: July 1916

Where: N/A

Who won: Allies

Who was involved: N/A

Goal: break the standstill in WWI

Outcome: many casualties + the Allies gained 7 miles of land

The Allies’ attempt to disrupt the stalemate was a large battle resulting in nearly nothing.

Attacks of Lusitania & Sussex

Lusitania

  • May 7, 1915

  • a U-boat torpeedoed British passenger liner Lusitania (later discovered to have been carrying war supplies)

  • incident killed 1,000+ including 128 U.S. citizens

  • this angered the U.S. public

  • led to Sussex Pledge

Sussex

  • took place after the attack of the Lusitania

  • unarmed French passenger ship

  • injured Americans

PROCEEDINGS

Sussex Pledge

Germany didn’t want the U.S. to enter the war against them, so they offered to pay those who were injured in the attack of the Sussex and warn neutral vessels + passenger ships before attacking. This resolved the submarine warfare conflict.

Zimmermann Telegram

This was a secret telegram intercepted by British agents from the German foreign minister to Mexico, offering a German alliance with Mexico against the U.S. if America were to enter the war. It angered Americans and sparked more anti-German feelings.

U.S. Declaration of War

On April 2, 1917, WIlson asked Congress for a declaration of war against Germany. After a debate it was decided that the nation had to defend its rights to remain a world power. The declaration was signed by Wilson on April 6.

Selective Service Act

On May 18, Congress passed the Selective Service Act (military draft) to quickly raise an army. Millions of men ages 21-30 (eventually lowered to 18) registered (about 24 million by the end of the war) - of them about 3 million were called to serve and another 2 million voluntarily joined.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

March 1917: Russia revolts, Nicholas II (czar) gave up his throne and was replaced by a government that supported the war but could not solve Russia’s many serious issues, such as the food shortages.

November 1917: Riots break out over new Russian government’s handling of war, food, and fuel scarcity. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrow the government and wanted to pull out of the war to focus on setting up a new Communist state.

March 1918: Lenin signs Russia’s peace treaty with Germany + the Central Powers