The first people to inhabit the Caribbean region were the Indigenous Peoples or the Pre- Columbian Indians.
These people migrated from Asia and settled in the Americas and the Caribbean and established a way of life in these regions.
Most people believe that the first inhabitants came to the Americas from Asia between 15-20 000 years ago.
This was during the Fourth Ice Age when large parts of the earth were covered with ice and the oceans and lakes were frozen.
The Bering Strait (the narrow stretch of water which separating Alaska from the coast of Siberia in north-eastern Asia) was said to be forming an ‘’Ice Bridge’’ .
Early man depended on animals for food and clothing especially since the Ice Age had cause fruits and herbs to become scarce.
These hunters were nomadic so they travelled from place to place in search of food and shelter.
These hunters were following herds of animals like mammoths, deer and caribou without knowing that they were crossing from one continent to another.
These Asian migrants are usually referred to as Mongoloids since they came from Mongolia in Central Asia.
Settlement Patterns in the Americas
The Asian migrants settled in North America and continued to hunt.
As time passed, these people developed a way of life and also many languages.
They lived in small family units and made their homes from the skins of the animals they hunted.
Their homes are called tents.
During the next thousands of years, they wandered in many directions.
Those who occupied the same area, spoke the same language, and shared a common language are said to belong to a tribe.
Some Amerindians lived in Eastern Canada (Mohawk) while some occupied the bleak and barren Artic regions.
They were known as Eskimos.
In North America, the Amerindians settled in areas such as the Florida Peninsula and Alaska.
Some also settled in the Prairies of the Great Plains.
The Incas settled in countries such as Chile, Argentina, Nicaragua, and Peru.
The Aztecs settled in Mexico while the Maya settled in the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Honduras, parts of Belize, El Salvador, and Southern Mexico.
The Mayas, Incas and Aztecs each developed civilizations which flourished and they are known as Mesoamericans.
Settlement Patterns in the Caribbean
The first group of Amerindians to arrive in the Caribbean were the Ciboney who settled mainly in Cuba.
They migrated northwards from Suriname, Eastern Venezuela and Guyana in South America.
Archaeologists have not found much evidence in order to describe what they were like or how they lived because they left few artefacts behind.
Sometime afterwards, the Ciboney were followed by the Tainos (Arawaks) and Kalinagos (Caribs).
The Tainos’ original homeland was in the forest between the Orinoco and Amazon Rivers in South America.
They travelled in large canoes and usually settled on each island they encountered, then after a few years, some would move onto another island.
The Arawaks were divided into two principle tribes which are the Lucayos in the Bahamas and the Tainos in the Greater Antilles.
The Kalinagos followed the Tainos into the Caribbean.They lived further south in the jungles around the Orinoco.
They also moved from island to island. At each one, they fought the Tainos and pushed them out and established themselves on the island.
The Tainos fleeing from their enemies, the Kalinagos, crossed into Trinidad and continued to move further up the island chain.
By the time the Europeans arrived in the Caribbean in 1492, the Tainos occupied mainly the islands of the Greater Antilles which are Puerto Rico, Cuba, Hispaniola and Jamaica. They also occupied the Bahamas and Barbados.
The Kalinagos occupied mainly the islands of the Lesser Antilles such as Trinidad, Dominica and St. Vincent.
Trinidad and Puerto Rico were occupied by both the Tainos and Kalinagos.
The Tainos and Kalinagos in the Caribbean did not develop great civilizations like the Maya or Inca, rather they have been labelled as ‘’primitive’’ in terms of culture.
The Amerindians dominated the region up until the arrival of the Europeans in 1492.
The coming of the Europeans saw drastic changes in the way of life of the Amerindians and ensured their near- extermination.
The Tainos/Arawaks
Physical Appearance
The Tainos were short to medium height, well- shaped, but slightly built, except in Hispaniola where they were plump.
According to Christopher Columbus, their skin colour was ‘’olive’’, that is smooth and brown.
Their heads were flattened at the forehead by the use of boards or bandages when they were babies.
The Tainos had broad noses and nostrils probably flared wide.
Their hair was black and straight, but coarse, and was usually worn long.
Economic Organization
The Tainos fished, hunted and grew just enough food for themselves and their families. This is known as subsistence living.
There was little or no extra food produced for storing or trading.
The forest was cleared by burning trees and bushes and then planting crops. This method of clearing the forest is known as the slash-and-burn technique.
Manioc or cassava was their main crop, and they also cultivated other crops such as maize or corn, sweet potato, cotton, groundnuts, and tobacco.
Since manioc could be harmful, they squeezed the juices out of it before making flour. The flour was then used to make thin, flat cakes or cassava bread.
The Tainos practiced farming and gathering along with fishing and hunting.
They caught and ate various types of fish, crabs, lobsters, turtles, shellfish, and manatee (sea cow).
The coral reefs around the islands were filled with these animals which were easily caught by harpoon, or by hand. Turtles were caught by tying a remora (sucker-fish) that was caught on a long line to a canoe.
The remora would dive for the turtle and attach itself to the back with its sucker and the turtle would then be pulled into the canoe by the fishermen.
Hunting on land was more difficult as there were few large animals to put in a stew. The iguana, agouti and the Indian coney gave the most meat. Birds such as parrots, doves and wild ducks were also hunted and caught by slipping a noose over their heads.
The method of catching ducks showed a lot of cunning. First, they floated gourds downstream until the ducks became used to seeing gourds, and then the hunter himself would drift downstream with a gourd over his head, breathing through a hole and seeing through eye-slits. When he came upon a bird he would pull it under water by its legs and drown it!
There was only one type of domestic animal called an alcos (a small barkless dog). These small dogs were used to help the Tainos hunt.
The Taino food was carefully prepared by stewing, baking, roasting and barbecuing. Iguana meat was stewed, cassava cakes were baked, and fish was roasted. Seasoning with salt and pepper was common.
There was a special sauce called cassareep, made of salt, pepper and cassava juice.
The favourite dish of the Tainos was pepperpot, a great stew into which went meat, vegetables, nuts, and of course pepper. A good pepperpot lasted for weeks. Its flavour was changed as some meat was added.
Intoxicating drinks were made up of cassava and maize.
In addition, there were also a variety of fruits and vegetables available. These included, pineapples, star apples, mammy apples, hog plums, guavas, and paw-paw. The Tainos therefore enjoyed a varied and well-balanced diet and food was plentiful.
Method of how cassava juice was extracted from cassava The women grated the cassava on a board covered with small pebbles or rough coral until it formed a paste. This was put into a wicker tube, one end of which was hung from a branch, while a weight was attached to the other end. This caused the tube to contract, and forced the poisonous liquid out through the wicker. The paste which remained was left to dry and then pounded into flour using a mortar and pestle. The flour was formed into flat cakes and baked on a griddle until the cakes were hard and dry. In this way they could keep for some time.
Social Organization
Taino communities were small, although a few had more than a thousand houses that could be classed as large villages.
The villages were scattered along the coast and near rivers. They often chose sites on top of hills as a precaution against surprise attack. Their houses were not built as permanent structures since every few years they moved to new areas for farming. Their houses were strongly built to withstand fierce hurricanes.
Some of the villages were quite large. They were well planned, usually circular in shape, with a ball court or ceremonial plaza as their central feature. The chief’s hut was built next to the plaza.
Not only was each village well planned, but Taino settlements were highly organized. The Tainos had two sorts of houses: the bohio (chief’s house) and the caneye (family house).
In recognition of his status, the chief’s house should have been rectangular but the Tainos found it difficult to build and so he was often given a round house. The usual Taino house was round and constructed in the following way: wooden posts were put in the ground in a circle and canes were woven between them and tied creepers. The roof was thatched in a conical shape and a hole left in the top through which smoke could escape.
There were no windows and only one opening for a door. They had little furniture expect for hammocks made of cotton in which they slept. There were a few highly polished clay pots for cooking and other food vessels. Sometimes stools, or even tables were found but these were very rare.
Tools were small and made of stone. They were well shaped and highly polished. there would always be a small statue of a zemi made of wood, stone or cotton, or a basket of bones serving as a zemi, and cradles for children.
Duties of the Taino Men The Taino men hunted for food and cleared the lands for cultivation. They also did the fishing. The men also built the houses and were the ones who went to war during war time. The boys helped the men to build the canoes.
Duties of the Taino Women and Children The Taino women grew the crops (reaped). They mostly did the cooking, washing and cleaning. They also wove baskets and hammocks and took care of the children. The children took part in the reaping of crops, scaring away of birds and animals. They also caught the water to be used by the household. The girls helped their mothers weave.
Political Organization
The cacique or chief was the head of a Taino society. Cacique was a hereditary title which was passed from father to son. It was unlikely that a cacique would have no heirs as he was allowed many wives, although the Tainos were monogamous by custom. If he died without an heir, the title was passed to the eldest son of his eldest sister.
The cacique was more of a ceremonial leader than a lawmaker. He dealt with the distribution of land, the ordering of labour on the land, and the planting and distribution of the crops. He made the decisions of peace and war and was the leader in war but he made few laws and keeping the law and order was a matter for the individual. For example, if someone stole property it was up to the injured party to inflict punishment.
His house was the largest and it was also built for him, and his canoe was built by his tribesmen. He had a special stool called a duho and he was also buried in a marked grave and some of his wives were also buried with him. He was also given the best food and carried in a litter. His wives could also wear longer skirts than other women.
As a religious leader, the cacique fixed the day of worship and led the ceremonies playing a wooden gong. He had his own zemis and they were felt to be stronger than others and thus he commanded additional respect and obedience.
While the Cacique did have much power, he had advisors. Nobles called Mitaynos assisted the chief. These men had to be the eldest men in society because they knew the Kingdom’s boundaries of the past and recent years. They remembered the past of their kingdom and other arguments with other kingdoms. Decisions occurred in a council meeting with the cacique and higher ranking persons in Taino society such as the nobles. The older noble men had songs and dances which they taught the young villagers their history and laws.
Religion
Religious beliefs of the Tainos included the belief of the sky-god and earth- goddess and they made zemis to represent the forces controlled by these gods, like rain, wind, hurricanes and fire, or like fertility in the case of the earth-goddess’s zemi. They also worshipped their ancestors and made zemis for them, often out of the bones of these ancestors.
The Tainos had a creation story which said that the first man escaped from a cave with the sun when the keeper of the cave forgot to close it. They believed in life after death in coyaba (said to be a peaceful place where they could meet their ancestors and be free of natural calamities like sickness and hurricanes).
Other religious practices besides making zemis out of bones of their ancestors include, avoiding eye-contact with the sun (to avoid being turned into plants and animals) and burning a tribesman with his most valuable possessions to accompany him in coyaba.
Taino Religious Ceremony
In religious ceremonies, the priests often used tobacco or cohoba (powdered tobacco) which they inhaled directly into their nostrils to induce unconsciousness, the best state for communication with the zemis.
If the priest failed to have his prayer answered by the zemi, it was felt that its power was too strong. For an important religious ceremony, the village would be summoned by blowing a conch shell and the cacique would lead a procession of the whole village.
The priests would make themselves vomit by tickling their throats to clear away all impurity before communicating with the zemis.
Importance of Canoes to the Tainos and How They Were Built
The canoes were vital to the Tainos in their trading between certain islands. It was their only means of transportation. They used the canoes to fish, raid, travel and trade. They traded cloth, tools, weapons, furniture, tobacco, certain fruits, and gold.
The Tainos built long canoes that could fit up to 80 people. They did not use metal tools to carve out the canoes from trees. They would use a silk cotton that was first ringed and burnt off at the base. They would then chip the other side then slowly burn out the interior. Then they would wet the hallowed trunk and insert wooden wedges of different lengths to widen it in the middle and tape it at the end, to shape the canoe.
The canoe was then buried in damp sand to cure the canoe before being dried out in the sun.
Village Customs
It was customary for the Tainos to flatten their babies’ foreheads. It was thought that a flat forehead was a mark of beauty and that it created a stronger skull and made it easier for boys to aim bows up into tree tops. They flattened the babies’ foreheads by playing their heads between two boards.
The Tainos practiced subsistence farming, growing food for mainly themselves and their families. Painting the body in black, white, red and other colour dyes was a common custom. They painted their faces, eyes, noses, and parts of their heads. The dye was often obtained from tree bark and certain fruits. As a sign of rank, married women wore straight strips of cotton cloth hanging from their waist like a small apron.
Colorful parrot feathers were worn in their hair. Bits of gold and copper hammered together to form a metal called guanin and jewellery made from this was worn by those of higher rank. The wives of the chief wore the longest cotton apron as a sign of their position. The Tainos used conch shells to make tools and musical instruments, even jewellery. The chief wore a coat of feathers, string of beads and semi-precious stones such as jasper and jade.
Dress
Taino men were usually naked except for special occasions, when they might wear decorative loincloths. They painted their bodies and sometimes wore decorations or jewellery. The chief wore a long apron, a coat of feathers, and jewellery or ornaments. The women usually wore a piece of cloth over their loins. The chief’s wives would wear the longest cotton apron as a sign of their position. Sometimes the Tainos wore colorful feathers in their hair. They also painted their bodies.
Leisure time Activities
The Tainos had ample leisure time which they occupied with singing and dancing, called areytos. The men and women usually danced separately, however, they would come together on special occasions in which the pleasure of drinking was added. They also had a ball game known as batos, which was played on a market field (batey), with two teams trying to hit the ball with any part of their body into their opponent’s goal line, a game somewhere between volleyball and football.
Smoking was the most well-known Taino pleasure. With the plant called cohiba, and tobacco referred to the pipe in which the leaves were smoked, the Tainos liked it for peace, contentment and helping them meditate. They made cigars, chewed tobacco and, most enjoyed of all, smoked it in pipes. The Tainos also made craft. They made pottery, basketry, weaving, feather craft, and jewellery. Painting their bodies was also a leisure time activity along with a custom.
Contribution of Tainos to the Caribbean and the wider world
The Tainos made a few contributions to the world, including the fruits and crops they grew like cassava, sweet potato, pineapples, and groundnuts which are used worldwide and has become part of the Caribbean diet.
Taino words such as ‘’hurricane’’, ‘’barbecue’’, ‘’buccaneer’’, and ‘’canoe’’ have all become part of the English Language and are frequently used. Barbecuing has become popular throughout the world and this was a Taino practice. Pepperpot is a dish still prepared by Caribbean people today.
The Kalinagos/Caribs
Physical Appearance
The Kalinagos were taller than the Tainos, but still only of medium height. They were described as being strong and built due to the emphasis placed on training for fighting. Their skin was brown and usually went naked.
The women painted their bodies with roucou (a red dye) and made fantastic decorations in many colours. The men would also paint their bodies would wear headdresses and jewellery.
Very rarely you would also find them wearing cotton clothes around their waist. They had short heads and, like the Tainos, they flattened the foreheads of babies. They had a complete absence of body hair.
Political Organization
The Tainos had no such organization as the Tainos with their caciques. In peacetime they had only few laws, only those made by the tiubutuli hauthe (village headman) who was the head of the family since each family lived in a separate village. However, in war the Kalinagos became more strictly organized. Each piraga (canoe) was captained by its owner and one of the captains was chosen as Ubutu or Ouboutou (commander-in-chief). If the raid was successful, he would keep this title for the rest of his life.
The ouboutou planned the raids, chose the captains and distributed the prizes. He was greatly feared among his men for his power. The ouboutou became chief either by right of birth or through being an outstanding warrior. The village men along with the chief made plans for fishing, trading and war or for organizing the settlement. Kalinago men lived together in a large, rectangular house called carbet, because they were undergoing warrior training. The women carried food to the carbet but otherwise lived separately. The Kalinagos slept in hammocks, but they also had a kind of bed called amais. Their utensils were not so well made or polished as those of the Tainos.
Social Organization
The Kalinagos’ social organization was quite loose as their culture emphasized physical prowess and individualism. A Kalinago village was made up of a small number of houses, with a karbay or big meeting house as the central building.
The karbay was where the men assembled, but the only way in was through a small door. There were many stout posts supporting the roof, and from these posts the hammocks were slung. The roof was thatched with palm fronds or cachibou leaves, which were tied down by mahoe, or rope, or cords. These cords were made from the bark of mahoe trees. The houses which surrounded the karbay were oval in shape and much smaller. The walls were made of reeds. There was only one room for the family, which included the father, wives and unmarried children.
There were however, separate huts for cooking and storing precious objects such as hammocks, bows and arrows. In the kitchen, there were utensils such as pottery and calabashes, or couris. The rest of the furniture consisted of cotton hammocks, small stools and four-legged tables of basket-work called matoutou.
Duties of Kalinago men The men cleared the forests to prepare gardens, they built houses and collected the palms for thatching the roofs, and cut trees to build canoes. Most of this work was done in the dry season and so this was the men’s time during the first part of the year Throughout the year they secured food for the community.
Duties of Kalinago women The women prepared and cooked the food. When the rainy season had commenced, it was the women’s duty to plant crops. This is because it was women who attended births and it was thought that all things that need fertility to grown must come from women’s hands. The women also spun thread, wove hammocks and made clay pots for holding food and liquid.
Economic Organization
Warfare was the Kalinago’s major interest. Internal conflicts were common; there was no important chief, military organization, or hierarchical structure. The men strove to be individualistic warriors and boasted of their heroic exploits.
The Kalinagos produced several crops: cassava or manioc was their main crop just like the Tainos, and they also grew yam, sweet potato and maize or corn. They grew tobacco and cotton which they spun and wove into small strips of cloth. They also made strings for fishing lines and nets for making hammocks. With the islands free for all the tribe, the Kalinagos planted crops wherever they pleased. Usually they made farming plots from the village. The men cleared the lands using the slash-and-burn technique, while the women planted the crops and tended them. The Kalinagos hunted with bows and arrows, not just to get food but also for sport, using arrows made from slender reeds with tips made of sharp wooden heads.
Fish were caught in many ways: The Kalinagos used bows and arrows to shoot fish which came close to the surface. They also used nets, traps and fishing lines with hooks made of shells. Lobsters were caught in the reefs with harpoons. Conch and other shellfish were easily caught. The shells were used to make tools. Many of the islands on which they Kalinago lived on had streams full of fish. The Kalinagos knew how to poison the rivers by pounding the leaves of certain plants and mixing them into the water. This would stun the fish, which could then easily be caught by land.
The Tainos were much better farmers than the Kalinagos, but the Kalinagos were better fishermen and hunters than the Tainos. The Kalinagos had more protein in their diet than the Tainos due to them consuming more meat and fish than the Tainos. The Tainos did not hunt or fish as much as the Kalinagos.
Importance of canoes to the Kalinagos and how they were made
The Kalinagos were always travelling back and forth among the islands, and were excellent seamen. The Kalinagos used their canoes to travel from island to island, fish, trade, hunt, and go on raids.
They made two different types of canoes, and they were not very different from the canoes made by the Tainos. The smaller craft, the couliana, was at most about twenty feet long and was pointed at both ends. This type was used for fishing close to the shore and could only hold a few people. The bigger boat was called canoua, the word we still use today. The largest of these were up to fifty feet long and could carry thirty to forty people. These vessels were dug out of logs and stretched by fire and soaked with water to make the wood expand. It was in these larger canoes that the Kalinago went to attack other islands or to make long fishing and trading trips.
The canoes were rowed with flat paddles shaped like spades. A long pole was used to guide the craft carefully over reefs. The bark of the mahoe tree was used to tie the large stone archer. Rafts were also made from trunks of light forest trees.
Religious Beliefs and Practices
The Kalinagos were polytheistic, believed in many gods, and in evil spirits known as maboya.
The priest had the power to pray to the gods to turn back evil.
They believed In the forces of evil, in life after death, in the existence of Heaven and hell, that there is punishment and reward in the afterlife.
Those who were brave warriors went to a place where they were waited on by Tainos slaves.
That the souls of cowards went to a dreary desert where they became slaves to Tainos masters.
The priest or boyez was the only one who could communicate with the gods.
In offering sacrifices to the gods especially when they went to sea.
In using tobacco (incense) in the process of communicating with the gods.
In having festivals and celebrations in honour of the gods.
In keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods).
In offering prayers to the gods for bravery.
Both the Tainos and the Kalinagos believed in nature and ancestor worship.
Village Customs
Men and women lived separately.
Painting of the body to look fierce especially when going on raids.
They did not eat turtle. They thought it would make them slow and stupid.
They ate a lot of pepper. It was believed that this would make them fierce.
They flattened their foreheads from an early age. This was to make the arrow bounce off should they get hit in the forehead during battle.
They often hung the skull and or bones of their victims in their houses like trophy.
All boys were required to undergo initiation test when they reached puberty.
They were scratched with an agouti claw and pepper rubbed in the wound. If they bore it without flinching, they were chosen to be a warrior. If they flinched, they would be numbered among the priests.
The Maya
The Maya were the first group of Amerindians to develop a very high level of culture called a civilization unlike the Tainos and Kalinagos who had a simple way of life which did not develop beyond their family village settlement stage. The Maya are known as Mesoamericans.
The Maya made outstanding advancements in Astronomy and Mathematics, and developed an accurately yearly calendar. They were one of the first people to develop an advanced form of writing.
The areas where the Maya settled are Guatemala, the Yucatan Peninsula, Honduras, El Salvador, parts of Belize, and Southern Mexico. The magnificent civilization they developed in Southern Mexico was the most impressive of all the empires in the Americas and it flourished for at least 600 years from A.D. 250 to 900. This time period is known as the Classic Period of the Maya civilization.
Social Organization
Mayan society was strictly divided into rigid classes. Each social class had its own rights and duties. They were even guidelines considering the clothing and personal adornment worn by different social classes.
At the top of the social pyramid was the Hulach Uinic who was both a High Priest and a Great Lord. Members of this upper class group included the Priests, other Lords, Nobles, the Batabs or Batabobs, and Nacoms or war chiefs.
After the rulers and nobles were the majority of the people known as the working class. They were mainly farmers and artisans (craftsmen). They provided the tax system of crops and labour which supported the officials and priests. They also built magnificent stone cities, fine bridges, aqueducts (water path), and roads.
There was also an independent merchant class. The Ppolms or merchants played an important role in the society. They had their own gods and lived according to their own laws. They did not have to pay taxes or give any personal service in agricultural labour road building. They did however perform a very important role in foreign affairs, for they frequently acted as spies especially during war time.
The slaves were the lowest class in the society. Most slaves were people from neighbouring tribes who were captured during war time. They were used as servants for the upper class people and also as human sacrifices to Mayan gods.
Economic Organization
Most of the Maya people were farmers. They worked the land collectively as one community. The land was first cleared by burning and cutting forest trees. Next, the ground was broken with digging sticks called woa and the grains of corn were planted. Corn or maize was the most important crop. When it was harvested, the farmers had to give portions to the priests and noblemen as a form of tax. Large underground storerooms or granaries called chultunes were built for storing the grain.
Other crops such as pumpkin, squash, cassava, potato, and cotton were also cultivated. Huge reservoirs were built to store water. Wells or cenotes were also dug and from these water was carried to the fields.
The Maya built roadways to encourage trade between their various cities. Trading also took place outside the Maya Empire. People came together to trade in large market places which were part of the city in their district. Trading was carried out by merchants (ppolms). As they travelled between city states and areas outside the Maya Empire, they were able to carry out their duties as spies for the Hulach Uinic.
They did not have the wheel or any beasts of burden, such as horses and oxen. They carried most of their goods on their backs or on rivers in dugout canoes. The Maya were the only American Indians who carried on trading by sea as well as land. There is evidence to suggest that their canoes had contact with Cuba and Dominica.
The Lowland Mayas handcrafted forest and sea products. The Highland group sold jade, volcanic glass, and quetzal feathers. The Yucatan Maya traded salt and finely decorated cotton. Cocoa beans were used as a medium of exchange. Sometimes small copper bells or red shells/strings were also used as a medium of exchange.
The Maya practiced surplus farming unlike the Tainos and Kalinagos who practiced subsistence living.
Political Organization
Of the three groups, the Maya were the most advanced. They built vast empires and independent city states. As such, they had a fairly elaborate and rigid system of government. Each independent city state was ruled by a Halach Uinic. This was a hereditary position. It was passed down from father to son only. His powers were wide. He was almost an absolute ruler. He had the final say in all matters. He had various civil, military and religious duties to perform. He designed all domestic policies and foreign affairs.
Remember that we are dealing with a very large area when compared to the Caribbean region occupied by the Tainos and Kalinagos. Belize alone is twice the size of Jamaica. The states were divided into villages which were ruled by batabs. There were all chosen from the noble class so this post was also hereditary. They were to see to it that the laws and policies were enforced.
Because the Maya were constantly engaged in defending themselves from neighbouring invaders, the war chiefs or nacoms were also an important part of the government. They were however elected for three years. During their term of office, they were not allowed to drink any strong drink. They were responsible for providing and training soldiers.
Religious Beliefs and Practices
The Maya were polytheistic. They believed in as many as 166 gods! They had too had a number of myths to explain the mysteries of life including earth and the creation of man. They believed in: The forces of good and evil. Life after death. Heaven and hell. The underworld.
There is punishment in the afterlife for those who lived an evil life. There is reward in the afterlife for those who lived a good life. Confessing to the priest on one’s death bed. Offering human sacrifices to the gods, especially slaves. Using incense in the process of communicating with the gods. Having birthday festivals and celebrations in honour of the gods. Keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods).
Gender Relations
In Mayan society, the women played a subservient role. Mayan women were not allowed to drink at functions. They could not hold public office. Their main functions were child bearers and home makers. In fact, a Mayan man could divorce his wife if she did not bear him any children. They were also given specific roles. They worked to pay the tribute tax.
Weaving and pottery were done exclusively by the women. There were more recreational activities that the men were allowed to participate in. for example there was only one dance in which the men and women were allowed to dance together. All other dances were done by the men together. The men also participated in bow and arrow contests.
How did they manage to earn the title of the most advanced civilization?
Technology
We will do engineering and architecture as a separate item since this was a very important part of Mayan religion and society. Using their limestone and mortar, the Maya constructed the following to create their magnificent empires: -Corbelled arch. -Roads and bridges. -Causeways. -Massive temples with staircases for worship. -Entire cities with huge pyramids were constructed of stones, for example, Chichen Itza and Tikal. -Large public buildings made of limestone and mortar. -Stone stelae with their history depicted on them.
They were skilled in Mathematics.
They practiced a form of writing known as hieroglyphics.
They had books made from the bark of trees.
They created a Calendar very similar to ours with 365 days in a year and leap as well.
They practiced astrology. They observed the stars and planets and used these to determine the ‘‘right'’ time to plant, reap and even marry.
They had three farming techniques to include the slash-and-burn method.
They had a form of currency. Cocoa beans was used for money.
They used irrigation methods.
They used dams and wells to ensure water supply.
They knew and used the art of dyeing.
The Europeans
Europe in the 15th century
INFLUENCE OF CATHOLICISM
The spiritual powers of the Roman Catholic Church permeated every aspect of life and made the Church the dominant institution in Western Europe. It fostered the desire to spread Christianity in foreign lands. The Pope became the arbitrator of political disputes, particularly those involving the discovery of new lands. Yet new political and religious ideas began to undermine the predominance of Christendom.
POLITICAL
The archaic feudal system had practically disappeared with the establishment of new city-states and nation-states, namely England, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Italian city-states.