Global Affairs: Comprehensive Academic Study Notes

Conceptualizing Nationalism, Nations, and States

The Doctrine of Nationalism:
    * Definition: According to Heywood ( $2014$ ), nationalism is the doctrine that asserts the nation as the basic political unit in organizing society.
    * Historical Impact: It is the most influential force in international affairs, causing revolutions, wars, and the collapse of empires. It serves as a marker for new borders and the emergence of new states.
    * Nation-State: The triumph of nationalism is the "nation-state," accepted as the ultimate, legitimate, and basic form of political entity.
Distinguishing Nations and States:
    * Misnomers: The term "United Nations" is technically a misnomer, as it is a society of states rather than nations. Referring to "the Chinese" or "the Russians" as nations is common but often incorrect in strict political terms.
    * The Nation: Defined by Heywood as historical entities that evolve organically from ethnic communities, revealing themselves through myths, legends, and songs. It is a community of people joined by a shared identity and common social practices.
    * The State: An institutional machinery designed to extract resources and provide defense/justice. The "nation" was added as a "soul" to the "body" of the early modern state machinery.
Evolution of the Nation-State:
    * Foundational Revolutions: The US Preamble ( $1776$ ) "We the People" and the French Revolution ( $1789$ ) established the people as political actors. France adopted the principles of liberté, égalité et fraternité.
    * Congress of Vienna ( $1815$ ): Attempted to return Europe to pre-revolutionary ways, but nationalist sentiments persisted.
    * $1848$ Uprisings: Nationalist uprisings spread across Europe with people demanding the right to rule themselves.
    * Italian Unification ( $1861$ ): Italy became a unified country, moving past its division into city-states.
    * Post-WWI ( $1918$ ): Self-determination was officially acknowledged as a right, leading to the formation of most European nation-states.

The Nature and Evolution of International Relations (IR)

Defining IR:
    * Origins: The term was first used by Jeremy Bentham in $1798$ . Historically, it was a branch of law, philosophy, or history.
    * Academic Discipline: The first university chair of IR was founded at the University of Wales in $1919$ following the carnage of WWI.
    * Core Concepts: IR describes interactions between people, groups, firms, nations, and states. It involves politics among entities with no common sovereign (anarchy).
Evolution from Medieval Europe:
* Medieval Power Structure: Characterized by overlapping loyalties. Local power was held by feudal lords, cities, clerics, and duchies. Universal power was claimed by the (Catholic) Church and the Holy Roman Empire (established in the $10th$ century).
* The Rise of the State: Northern Italian city-states (Florence, Venice, Milan) played the Pope against the Emperor to gain independence. The Reformation ( $16th$ century) saw kings (Henry VIII in England, Gustav Vasa in Sweden) align with Protestantism to seize church lands.
The Westphalian System:
* Thirty Years’ War ( $1618\text{–}1648$ ): A protracted conflict that reduced Germany’s population by one-third. Originally religious (Catholic vs. Protestant), it became a struggle for hegemony.
* Treaty of Westphalia ( $1648$ ): Symbolized the new way of organizing international politics. States became the only units of interaction. Key principles include sovereignty (exclusive right to rule territory) and formal equality.
Global Spread of the European Model:
    * Industrial Revolution: Invention of steam and electric powered machines led to mass production and the search for overseas markets.
    * The Scramble for Africa: By $1914$ , most of the world was in European hands, except for China, Japan, Siam, Persia, Ethiopia, and Nepal.
    * Decolonized Sovereignty: Post-WWII, newly independent states adopted the European model (capitals, flags, anthems) as it was the only form granted sovereignty by the departing colonizers.

Actors and Levels of Analysis in IR

State Actors:
* There are currently $195$ states. States claim sovereignty (internal authority and external independence). In Realism, the state is the primary actor and the system is structurally differentiated from domestic politics as "anarchical" versus "hierarchic."
Non-State Actors:
* Includes Multinational Corporations (MNCs), International Governmental Organizations (IGOs), and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) like Amnesty International.
* Trans-nationalism: Interactions no longer occur purely via state channels. Technology and social media allow individuals to bypass state power and promote ideas across borders.
Levels of Analysis:
    * The Individual Level: Focuses on the behaviors, motivations, and psychology of leaders (e.g., Angela Merkel’s decision on refugees in $2015$ ).
    * The Group Level: Examines lobbying groups, technocratic circles, or activist groups (e.g., "Anonymous").
    * The State Level: The "state-centric" approach. Views the state as the main location of power.
    * The System Level: Focuses on global linkages, distribution of power (unipolarity, bipolarity, multipolarity), and anarchy.

Theories of International Relations

Idealism/Liberalism:
    * Core Beliefs: Human beings are innately good. Peace is achievable. Immanuel Kant argued that shared liberal values between states prevent war.
    * Democratic Peace Theory: Democracies do not go to war with each other.
    * Woodrow Wilson: Proposed the "Fourteen Points" in $1918$ and the League of Nations.
Realism:
    * Key Figures: Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes (State of Nature: "nasty, brutish, and short"), E.H. Carr, Hans Morgenthau.
    * Core Beliefs: The international system is anarchic. States pursue power as their primary interest. Morality is context-bound.
    * Neo-realism: Defined by Kenneth Waltz ( $1979$ ). Focuses on the international system structure rather than individual state motives.
Structuralism/Marxism:
* Core Beliefs: Focuses on the international division of labor, exploitation, and dependency (Global North vs. Global South). Center-periphery relations.
* Proponents: Immanuel Wallerstein (World Systems Analysis), Andre Gunter Frank, Samir Amin.
Constructivism:
* Core Concept: Alexander Wendt stated, "anarchy is what states make of it." International relations are shaped by ideas and norms rather than just material power.
Critical Theories:
* Post-colonialism: Edward Said ( $1978$ ) and the "Orientalist" critique. Focuses on the voices of the Global South and the effects of colonialism.

Understanding Foreign Policy and National Interest

Defining National Interest:
    * Raison d'état: The "reason of state" justifying policy toward others.
    * Holsti’s Definition: An image of the future state of affairs that governments aspire to bring about by wielding influence abroad.
    * Criteria: Ideological, Moral/Legal, Pragmatic, Professional Advancement, Partisan, and Foreign Dependency criteria.
Foreign Policy Objectives (Holsti categorization):
    * Short-range (Core): Preservation of physical/territorial integrity, political identity (politico-economic system), and cultural identity.
    * Middle-range: Economic betterment, social welfare, trade, and foreign aid.
    * Long-range: Universal demands for system reconstruction (visions of global ideological organization).
Foreign Policy Behavior Patterns:
    * Self-Preservation: Maintaining the status quo (e.g., USA post-WWII).
    * Self-Extension: Revising the status quo (e.g., BRICS: Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa).
    * Self-Abnegation: Compromising national interest for temporary benefit (often seen in weak, dependent states).
Instruments of Foreign Policy:
* Diplomacy: Structured communication. The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations ( $1961$ ) governs state diplomatic activity.
* Economic Instruments: Tariffs (taxes on imports), Quotas (quantity limits), Boycotts (elimination of imports), Embargoes (prohibition of transactions), and Foreign Aid (Military, Technical, Grants, Loans).

Overview of Ethiopian Foreign Policy

Tewodros II ( $1855\text{–}1868$ ): Aimed for a united Ethiopia and modernization. Appealed to Britain/France as Christian nations against Islamic threats. Committed suicide after the British military expedition defeated his troops.
Yohannes IV ( $1872\text{–}1889$ ): Faced threats from Egypt (Gundet and Gura battles, $1875\text{–}1876$ ) and Italy ( $1885$ at Port of Massawa). Died fighting the Sudanese Mahadists.
Menelik II ( $1889\text{–}1913$ ): Famous for the Battle of Adwa ( $1896$ ), defeating Italy. Abrogated the Treaty of Wuchale ( $1889$ ) over Article $17$ mistranslation. Established current boundary treaties with colonial powers.
Haile Selassie I ( $1916\text{–}1974$ ): Joined the League of Nations in $1923$ . Established a patronage link with the USA. US military assistance to Ethiopia reached $280\,million\,USD$ by $1975$ . Founder of the OAU.
The Dergue ( $1974\text{–}1991$ ): Socialist ideology. Heavily dependent on the USSR and Warsaw Pact for military aid (Warsaw Pact: GDR, Cuba, USSR). Conflict with Somalia over the Ogaden region.
Post- $1991$ : EPRDF government. "Inside-out" approach focusing on domestic democratization and development as the key to security. Shift toward Economic Diplomacy and the "East-look" policy.

International Political Economy (IPE)

Definition: The study of the tension between the market (self-interest) and the state (collective action). A broader definition includes social forces and businesses.
Theories of IPE:
    * Mercantilism: Oldest theory (Friedrich List). Favors state intervention, balance-of-payment surpluses, and autarky.
    * Liberalism: Favors the free market (Adam Smith). Doctrine of Comparative Advantage (specialization).
    * Marxism: Critique of global inequality (richest $20\,percent$ control $83\,percent$ of income; poorest $20\,percent$ control $1.0\,percent$ ).
    * Hegemonic Stability Theory (HST): Argues that a stable world economy requires a benevolent hegemon (e.g., Britain in the $19th$ century, USA post- $1945$ ).
    * Structuralism: The Prebisch-Singer thesis; characterizes the international system as a center-periphery dependency.

National Political Economy Systems

The American System: Market-oriented, neoclassical model. Emphasizes consumer welfare and wealth creation.
The Japanese System: Developmental State Capitalism. Subordinates the economy to sociopolitical objectives. High focus on "infant industry" protection.
The German System: Social Market Capitalism. Balance between market efficiency and social concern. Labor has a role in corporate governance ("law of co-determination").

Globalization and Regionalism

Globalization Dimensions: (1) Stretching of activities across frontiers, (2) intensification of interconnectedness, (3) accelerating velocity of interaction, (4) deepening enmeshment.
Globalization Debates:
    * Hyper-globalists: Believe nation-states are becoming obsolete.
    * Skeptics: Argue globalization is a myth; it is actually "regionalization."
    * Transformationalists: Believe globalization is a driving force reshaping societies but not ending the state.
Regionalism Theories:
    * Functionalism: Mitrany ( $1946$ ). "Spillover" from technical to political cooperation.
    * Neo-functionalist: Haas ( $1968$ ). Focus on political agency and supranational institutions.
    * Cases: European Union (EU), African Union (AU, founded $2002$ ), ASEAN (founded $1967$ ).

Major Contemporary Global Issues

Security Issues:
* Terrorism: Types include Domestic, Nationalist, Religious, State, and Global. Factors: socio-economic, political, and psychological (humiliation).
* Nuclear Proliferation: Spread of technology and knowledge. Incentives include the "nuclear umbrella" (extended deterrence) and regional rivalries (India vs. Pakistan, $1998$ nuclear tests).
Environmental Issues: Climate Change and Global Warming. The Kyoto Protocol (second commitment period: January $1, 2013$ to December $31, 2020$ ).
Socio-economic Issues:
* Inequality and Poverty: The "We are the $99\,percent$ " outcry from Occupy Wall Street. Inequality discourages political participation and impartial institutions.
* Migration and Refugees: Driven by population growth, communication revolutions, and political turmoil.
Cultural Issues: Cultural Imperialism ("McDonaldization") and the "Clash of Civilizations" (S.P. Huntington’s thesis of $8$ major civilizations: Western, Confucian, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic-Orthodox, Latin American, and African).

Globalization refers to the process of increasing interconnectedness among countries economically, politically, culturally, and socially. It encompasses various dimensions:

Stretching of Activities: Economic activities (such as trade and investment) expand beyond national borders.
Intensification of Interconnectedness: Countries become more intertwined, with the actions of one nation impacting others.
Accelerating Velocity of Interaction: Advances in technology enable faster communication and movement of goods and people.
Deepening Enmeshment: The complexity of interactions increases, resulting in a web of relationships among various global actors.

Globalization Debates

Hyper-globalists: They argue that nation-states are becoming obsolete due to globalization.
Skeptics: They claim that globalization is overrated, suggesting that what we see is actually regionalization rather than true global interconnectedness.
Transformationalists: They maintain that globalization is reshaping societies and interactions but does not eliminate the role of the state.

Regionalism Theories

Functionalism: Proposed by Mitrany in 1946, this theory suggests that political cooperation will naturally follow technical cooperation.
Neo-functionalist: Developed by Haas in 1968, it emphasizes the importance of political agency and the role of supranational institutions in regional cooperation.

Examples of Regionalism

European Union (EU): A significant political and economic union among European nations.
African Union (AU): Founded in 2002, focusing on promoting unity and cooperation among African countries.
ASEAN: The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, established in 1967 for regional cooperation.

In summary, chapters 4 and 5 discuss globalization, its impacts, the debates surrounding it, and the theories and examples of regionalism that highlight how nations are starting to work together in various ways to address both challenges and opportunities in a growing global landscape.

Globalization refers to the process of increasing interconnectedness among countries economically, politically, culturally, and socially. It encompasses various dimensions:

Stretching of Activities: Economic activities (such as trade and investment) expand beyond national borders.
Intensification of Interconnectedness: Countries become more intertwined, with the actions of one nation impacting others.
Accelerating Velocity of Interaction: Advances in technology enable faster communication and movement of goods and people.
Deepening Enmeshment: The complexity of interactions increases, resulting in a web of relationships among various global actors.

Globalization Debates

Hyper-globalists: They argue that nation-states are becoming obsolete due to globalization.
Skeptics: They claim that globalization is overrated, suggesting that what we see is actually regionalization rather than true global interconnectedness.
Transformationalists: They maintain that globalization is reshaping societies and interactions but does not eliminate the role of the state.

Regionalism Theories

Functionalism: Proposed by Mitrany in 1946, this theory suggests that political cooperation will naturally follow technical cooperation.
Neo-functionalist: Developed by Haas in 1968, it emphasizes the importance of political agency and the role of supranational institutions in regional cooperation.

Examples of Regionalism

European Union (EU): A significant political and economic union among European nations.
African Union (AU): Founded in 2002, focusing on promoting unity and cooperation among African countries.
ASEAN: The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, established in 1967 for regional cooperation.