Mesopotamian Civilisation

Civilization: An advanced stage or system of social development.
- Originates from the evolution of primitive humans (nomadic hunter-gatherers) settling down and developing cultured lifestyles.
- Cultured individuals possess refined interests, special artistic skills, and improved lifestyles.

Settled Life: Permanent residence in established locations.
Surplus Food Production: Agricultural advancements providing more food than necessary for survival, allowing time for other pursuits.
Towns and Cities: Urban centers that facilitate trade and social organization.
Town Planning, Residential Buildings, and Monuments: Organized layout and significant structures that mark the civilization.

Major civilizations developed along specific river valleys, including:
- Indus Valley in India.
- Nile Valley in Egypt.
- Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia.
- Huang He (Hwang Ho) and Chang Jiang (Yangtze) in China.

Mesopotamia: Meaning "the land between two rivers" in Greek; located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in West Asia.
- Rivers overflow during floods, depositing alluvial silt facilitating agriculture.
The Sumerian civilization blossomed in the lower valley of the Euphrates around 3500 BCE.
- This civilization lasted about 1,500 years until being absorbed by Babylonians and Assyrians.
Frequently attended by nomadic tribes from outside, Mesopotamia is deemed the cradle of many civilizations.

Town Planning:
- Urban structures, exemplified by the Sumerian city of Ur, demonstrated organized settlements divided into a sacred area, walled cities, and outer towns.
- Sacred area featured ziggurats (temple towers), smaller temples, storage facilities, and administrative offices.
- Living spaces in the walled city and outer town with houses designed around central courtyards.

Inventions from Mesopotamia include:
- Architectural forms such as arches, columns, domes, and vaults.
- Notable structures include ziggurats made from sun-baked bricks, often utilized as observatories, schools, and trade centers.
- The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, constructed by King Nebuchadnezzar II, are recognized as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, designed to please his wife by mimicking her mountainous homeland.

Upper Class: Royal family members, priests, and high officials.
Middle Class: Farmers, artisans, and traders.
- Predominantly agricultural society with a majority as farmers.
Lower Class: Slaves.

The family unit was patriarchal, with the father as head, holding privileges.
Women had protected rights; children were strictly raised with boys learning academics, and girls trained in arts such as dance and music.

Primary Occupation: Agriculture sustained by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which necessitated irrigation due to irregular flooding.
- Innovations:
- Elaborate irrigation systems.
- Dykes for flood control.
- Ox-drawn plow to enhance agricultural yield.
- Wheeled wagon for transport of goods.
- First cultivation of wheat, in addition to barley, pulses, and fruits.

Scarcity of stone, timber, and metal ores motivated trade for necessary resources.
- Surplus food and goods were exported to the Mediterranean and Egypt.
- Records of trade were kept on clay tablets, indicating a developed commercial activity.

Polytheistic beliefs with every city worshiping its own deity.
Kings acted as chief priests and representatives of God.
Priests were significant societal figures.
- Similar religious practices existed in Ancient India, with deities linked to natural forces.
- Evidence suggested belief in afterlife with grave goods.

Development of Cuneiform:
- A wedge-shaped writing system written on clay tablets, which were baked to harden.
- Writing direction from left to right, using a stylus.

Developed counting systems:
- Numeration based on tens and sixties; divisible time measures.
- Innovations included dividing an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds, as well as a year into 12 months.

Code of Hammurabi:
- Comprehensive laws that addressed various aspects of life and protected the rights of the less privileged, particularly women.
- The code is one of the oldest known legal systems established in history.

Civilizational decline occurred due to:
- Environmental shifts such as the course change of the Euphrates River, leading inhabitants to abandon settlements.
- Erosion from winds and sandstorms buried significant structures and artifacts.