Political Patterns & Processes: Political Geography
Key Issue #1: Where Are States Distributed?
State Definition: Area organized into a political unit with an established government controlling internal and foreign affairs.
Synonymous with "country."
5 Characteristics of a State:
Permanent population.
Defined territory with boundaries/borders.
System of social order: government, laws, economic system.
Sovereignty (independence).
Diplomatic recognition (international recognition).
Changes in Number of States Over Time:
Most habitable land is now organized into states.
1940s: 51 original UN members + 8 added.
Today: 193 UN members, 2 non-member observer states (Vatican City/Holy See, Palestine), total of 195.
6 “countries” with limited recognition by UN members.
Many states added post-European imperialism (1950s-1970s).
Many states added post-Cold War, collapse of communism (1990s).
Political Hierarchy of Territorial Governance
Empire: State + overseas colonies/dependent territories (largest).
State
Province: Subdivisions within a state with regional autonomy.
County: Subdivision within a province with local autonomy (smallest).
U.S. states are not true states in the modern political sense due to lack of sovereignty and diplomatic recognition.
Varying Degrees of Recognition
UN members without full recognition:
Armenia (1 - Pakistan).
Cyprus (1 - Turkey).
North Korea (2 - Japan & South Korea).
South Korea (1 - North Korea).
Israel (31 - mostly Muslim countries; recognized by PLO since 1993).
China (14 recognize Taiwan instead).
Non-UN members with some recognition:
Abkhazia (6 - Russia, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Nauru, Vanuatu, Syria).
Taiwan (14 & Vatican).
Kosovo (98).
Northern Cyprus (1).
Palestine (136 & Vatican, NOT Israel; non-voting observer state at UN).
Sahrawi Republic (42).
South Ossetia (5 - Russia, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Nauru, Syria).
Recognized only by non-UN members:
Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh).
Pridnestrovian Republic (Transnistria).
Fully unrecognized:
Somaliland (northern Somalia).
Capitals of Countries
Countries establish governments in cities designated as capitals.
Other countries establish embassies for diplomatic relations in those cities.
Countries with multiple capitals:
Bolivia: Sucre (official, judicial) & La Paz (executive & legislative).
Chile: Santiago (official, executive & judicial) & Valparaiso (legislature).
Czechia: Prague (official, executive & legislative) & Brno (judicial).
Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur (official, legislature) & Putrajaya (executive & judicial).
Netherlands: Amsterdam & The Hague (both official capitals).
South Africa: Pretoria (executive), Cape Town (legislature), Bloemfontein (judicial) - all 3 official.
Sri Lanka: Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte (official, legislature) & Colombo (de facto, executive & judicial).
Tanzania: Dodoma (official, legislature) & Dar es Salaam (de facto, judicial).
Israel & Palestine both claim Jerusalem as their capitals.
De facto capital for Palestine is Ramallah in West Bank.
Most countries recognize Tel Aviv as Israel’s capital, not Jerusalem.
Forward Capitals
Newly independent countries after WWII often established capitals in major colonial ports.
Capitals often relocated to more central or peripheral regions for control and development.
Examples:
Pakistan: Karachi to Islamabad (1960s).
Kazakhstan: Almaty to Astana (1997).
Brazil: Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia (1960).
Nigeria: Lagos to Abuja (1991).
Myanmar/Burma: Yangon/Rangoon to Naypyidaw (2006).
Ivory Coast/Cote d’Ivoire: Abidjan to Yamoussoukro (1983).
Tanzania: Dar es Salaam to Dodoma (1996).
Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur to Putrajaya (1999) due to overcrowding & distance from colonial capital.
Indonesia considering relocating capital from Jakarta to Palangkaraya (reduce regional economic inequality, reduce overcrowding).
Land Area Sizes of States
Land area sizes vary considerably.
Largest: Russia - (11% of world’s land area).
Next largest: Canada, China, U.S., Brazil, Australia (all > ).
Microstates: Sovereign countries with very small land areas; 24 countries under .
Smallest: Vatican City - .
Smallest full-voting UN member: Monaco - .
Others:
Pacific: Nauru, Kiribati, Micronesia, Palau, Tonga, Tuvalu.
Europe: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Malta, San Marino.
Caribbean: Antigua & Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines.
Bahrain, Sao Tome & Principe, Seychelles, Maldives, Singapore.
Advantages & disadvantages of large and small countries (resources, population, diversity, isolation, etc.).
Size can be centripetal (unifying) or centrifugal (divisive).
Sovereignty
Independence from control of internal affairs by other states.
A sovereign state is a good example of a formal region because of its gov’t, laws, army, leaders, etc.
Korea: 1 state or 2?
Colony of Japan for 35 years up until WWII.
After WWII in 1945: Korean peninsula divided into 2 occupation zones—North (communist, Soviet Union) and South (democratic, U.S.).
North Korea invaded in 1950 aided by Communist China; 3-year war ended in cease-fire; divided at 38th parallel (38 degrees North latitude).
mile wide buffer zone called the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).
Both claim entire peninsula and do not formally recognize one another.
Attempts at reconciliation recently, but frequent aggression from North Korea (missile tests, nuclear weapons development).
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) is North Korea; ruled by dictator since 1948; very poor; citizens lack access to food, electricity, basic needs.
Republic of Korea (ROK) is South Korea.
Sahrawi Republic/Western Sahara
Considered by most African countries to be a sovereign state; recognized by 42 countries total, with 42 more willing to recognize pending UN mission for referendum.
Claimed by Morocco; has built a wall of sand/earth around it.
Spain controlled Western Sahara (Spanish Sahara) as a colony until 1976.
Morocco & Mauritania both claimed Western Sahara upon Spain’s withdrawal; Mauritania withdrew its claim 3 years later.
Morocco was a former French colony.
Polisario Front is a rebel group that has declared itself the independent state of Sahrawi Republic, mostly operates east of the wall; government in exile in Algeria.
Government in Exile: Where the individual or group who claims to be the legitimate ruler of a certain country is living in another country.
May also include deposed ruling families of Iran & Laos, former Taliban leadership of Afghanistan, former parliament of Belarus, Taiwan.
China & Taiwan: 1 state or 2?
China (People’s Republic of China) vs. Taiwan (Republic of China).
1940s: Civil war between Nationalist (Chiang Kai-shek) & Communists (Mao Zedong); Communists won and Nationalists fled to Taiwan (formerly Formosa).
Both claimed to rule the other and to be the legitimate government of China.
U.S. recognized Taiwan as the sole government of China until the 1970s.
China’s seat in the United Nations was held by Taiwan until the 1970s; now Taiwan is not in the U.N.
14 countries still recognize Taiwan instead of China.
Most countries recognize China but view Taiwan as independent (albeit not formally).
Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands: Conflicting Claims
China, Taiwan, & Japan all claim small, uninhabited islands in the East China Sea.
Japan has controlled them since 1895, except when U.S. controlled them 1945-1972 after WWII.
Kuril Islands – 4 southernmost disputed between Japan & Russia; controlled by Russia.
Key Issue #2: Why Are States Challenging to Create?
Ancient States
First developed in Fertile Crescent region of SW Asia.
Included Mesopotamia (between Tigris & Euphrates) from Persian Gulf to southeastern Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and stretched along Mediterranean coast, continuing into Nile River Valley in Egypt.
Crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa; land & sea trade and communication.
First states here were city-states – sovereign state comprised of a city and its surrounding countryside.
Ancient city states had walled cities with agricultural land in the outskirts.
Ancient city states of Ur, Babylon, etc. in Fertile Crescent; city states of Athens, Sparta, etc. in Greece.
Modern city states: Singapore, Monaco, Vatican City.
Some ancient city states conquered nearby cities and developed into large empires: Sumerians, Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans.
Roman Empire to Medieval States
Great unity around Mediterranean in Roman Empire; controlled most of Europe, North Africa, SW Asia at its height.
Diffused laws, language, culture, military throughout empire; designated 38 provinces within empire.
Collapsed in 5th century (400s AD).
European portion of former empire became fragmented; smaller areas ruled by kings, dukes, barons, nobles; feudalism emerged.
Kings began to consolidate power over wider territory in Northern & Western Europe (especially France, Spain, Portugal, England, Denmark, Norway, Sweden) by 1300s.
Italy and Central & Eastern Europe remained more fragmented into small states.
By 1800, much of Europe was divided among a few large empires.
Nation States
Nation: Group of people united by common cultural characteristics (language, ethnicity) AND political heritage.
Nation state: A state whose territory corresponds to the territory occupied by a nation.
Key Dates for Evolution of Modern States
1884-85: Berlin Conference (Congo Conference).
1914 – 1918: World War I.
1919: Treaty of Versailles; breakup of German, Austria-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires.
1939 - 1945: World War II.
1945 – establishment of United Nations.
1945-1991: Cold War (Democracy/Capitalism vs. Communism).
1990: reunification of Germany.
1991: Breakup (Balkanization) of Yugoslavia, Breakup of Soviet Union (USSR), end of Cold War.
Self-determination
Perceived right of nations to rule/govern themselves.
Nations may seek to govern themselves to preserve & enhance their distinctive cultural characteristics without outside interference.
Nation states in Europe
Concept of nation states first developed in Europe after WWI.
Treaty of Versailles 1919 – goal to create nation states to preserve right of self- determination in Europe; used language as the determining characteristic for ethnicity/nation.
New states created based on nation-state principle, BUT not perfectly.
1930s: Rise of German Nationalism (Nazis); major goal of unifying all German- speaking portions of Europe, including Austria, the Rhineland (occupied by France after WWI) and the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia.
Invaded Poland to reclaim former German land; started WWII.
Example of irredentism – movement to reclaim/reoccupy a lost homeland; based on real or imagined historic or ethnic connections.
Nation States in Europe & Worldwide
Irredentism – movement to reclaim/reoccupy a lost homeland; based on real or imagined historic or ethnic connections.
Argentina claims Falkland Islands, South Georgia Island, and South Sandwich Island (all part of U.K.); 1982 Falklands War.
Bolivia claims territory lost to Chile in War of the Pacific 1879 -1883 (left Bolivia landlocked without access to Pacific).
China claims Taiwan.
India & Pakistan each claim all of Jammu & Kashmir (divided among India, Pakistan, & China).
Indonesia claims East Timor.
Israel/Palestine.
North & South Korea (claim each other).
Post-WWII Germany
Germany divided into 2 states – Communist East Germany (administered at first by Soviet Union/USSR) and Democratic West Germany (at first administered by U.S., U.K., & France).
Berlin – divided into East & West also; West Berlin entirely surrounded by East German territory.
Other new state boundaries drawn; mass migrations for ethnic groups to newly demarcated nation-state territories.
Reorganizing Nation States in Europe
Communism in Eastern Europe suppressed ethnic identities.
Revival of ethnic, linguistic, and religious identities throughout Eastern Europe contributed to the downfall of communism and the creation of new states.
Yugoslavia – peaceful separations of Slovenia & (North) Macedonia in 1991; ethnic cleansing in Bosnia & Kosovo; conflicts between Serbs & Croats.
Break-up of Czechoslovakia into Czech Republic (now Czechia) and Slovakia; peaceful; “Velvet Divorce”; 2 closely related languages.
Good Examples of Nation-States
Japan, Albania, Hungary, Armenia, Estonia, Iceland, Lesotho, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Bangladesh, China, Maldives, Greece, Mongolia, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Vietnam, Cambodia, Italy, Swaziland (now called Eswatini), etc.
No perfect nation states – never 100% a single ethnicity/nation.
Japan – 98.5% Japanese BUT 1.5% other.
Most ethnically diverse states in Africa; least diverse states in Europe.
Multi-state nations (nations divided among multiple countries)
Koreans (North & South Korea).
Arabs in numerous states in North Africa & SW Asia.
Any nation divided across more than 1 state (Kurds, Basques, Russians, Palestinians, etc.).
Nation States in the Former Soviet Union (USSR)
1922-1991 Communist Soviet Union; made up of 15 republics based on the 15 largest ethnicities; officially recognized over 100 ethnicities.
Breakup of USSR in 1991 with end of communism into 15 countries from the 15 republics.
3 Caucasus states – Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia
3 Baltic states – Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
3 European states – Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine
5 Central Asian states – Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
Russia – remaining portion of old Soviet Union; example of a rump state
Rump state – remnant territory of a once larger government or empire
Examples – Turkey of old Ottoman Empire, Serbia of old Yugoslavia, Ethiopia after Eritrea’s War for Independence, Sudan after secession of South Sudan
Armenia – good example of a nation state (98% Armenian) BUT many Armenians live outside Armenia (some in Azerbaijan, others as result of Armenian Genocide by Ottoman Turks during WWI)
Azerbaijan – mostly Azerbaijani BUT enclave of Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh (now called Republic of Artsakh); frequent conflict between Armenia (Christian) & Azerbaijan (Muslim); exclave of Azerbaijan named Nakhichevan separated by Armenia; many Azerbaijani living in Iran
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania – independent WWI to 1940 when USSR invaded and annexed
Nation States in the Former Soviet Union (USSR) – Baltic States
Estonia – Protestant (Lutheran) and speak a Uralic family language (Estonian) related to Finnish; 70% Estonian, 25% Russian
Latvia – Lutherans & Catholics; speak Latvian (Indo-European family, Balto-Slavic branch); 62% Latvian, 25% Russian
Lithuania – Roman Catholic; speak Lithuanian (Indo-European family, Balto-Slavic branch); 84% Lithuanian, small minorities of Poles & Russians
Nation States in the Former Soviet Union (USSR) – Other
Belarus – peaceful transition to nation-state; 84% Belarusian; maintains close ties to Russia; ruled by President Alexander Lukashenko since its independence; has kept many communist & Soviet principles in place
Moldova – 75% Moldovan; 7% Romanian; 7% Ukrainian; 4% Russian; part of Romania until 1940 when seized by Soviet Union in WWII; Moldovan & Romanian are considered by many to be the same ethnically; many have pushed for reunification with Romania
Soviet Union increased Moldova’s size in 1940 by transferring a narrow sliver of land on the east bank of the Dniester River (called Transnistria) from Ukraine to Moldova
Transnistria mostly inhabited by Ukrainians & Russians who oppose reunification with Romania; declared themselves independent (&unrecognized) Pridnestrovian Republic
Nation States in the Former Soviet Union (USSR) - Central Asia
Tajikistan – civil war of Communists versus Muslim fundamentalists and Western-oriented intellectual; 1992-1997; UN peacekeepers; 84% Tajik, 12% Uzbek
Uzbekistan – peaceful; 84% Uzbek, 5% Tajik
Turkmenistan – peaceful; 86% Turkmen, 6% Uzbek, 5% Russian
Multinational States in the Former Soviet Union
Multinational state: A state that contains multiple nations and national identities
Examples: Bosnia, U.K., Russia, former Yugoslavia, former Soviet Union (USSR), Belgium, South Africa
Sometimes multiple nations (ethnicities) contribute to a single nationality within the state; called a multi-ethnic state;
Examples: U.S. (what about Native Americans?), Canada (what about Quebec? and the Inuit & First Nations?), Myanmar, India, Afghanistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Montenegrins, Serbia, Spain (what about Catalonia? and the Basques?), Kenya, Nigeria, Switzerland
Russia now the largest multinational state since the USSR broke up
81% Russian; 185 ethnicities; 24 largest given local autonomy (recognized as nations)
Multinational States in the Former Soviet Union - Russia
Non-Russians clustered in 3 regions of Russia
Near the center between Volga River and Ural Mountains
Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash speak Turkic languages
Komi, Mari, Mordvin speak Uralic languages
SW in Caucasus Mountains
Chechen & Ingush speak Caucasian languages
Chechnya fight for independence since 1991; declared independent country of Ichkeria; Russians put region under direct control of Moscow; no autonomy; Russian gov’t considers them terrorists; conflict also in neighboring region of Dagestan (over 50 different ethnic groups there)
Azerbaijani and others speak Turkic languages
Armenian & Ossetian speak Indo-European languages
South along border with Kazakhstan
Kazakh & Tuvan speak Turkic languages
Buryat speak Mongolic language
Multinational States in the Former Soviet Union - Ukraine, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan
Ukraine – 77% Ukrainian, 17% Russian; maintained close ties with Russia; large coal deposits & strong steel industry
Began to pursue stronger ties and trade with Europe and the European Union (EU)
Russians clustered in eastern Ukraine (region called Donbass); began an uprising in 2014
Russia invaded and seized Crimean Peninsula in 2014 after referendum of Crimeans voting for separation from Ukraine and unification with Russia; UN and Ukraine dispute the referendum; almost no country recognizes Russia’s claim but no one has sought to end Russian occupation
Crimea was a part of Russia for approx. 170 years before being transferred to Ukraine while both were part of the USSR (1954)
Georgia – 71% Georgian, 8% Armenian, 6% Azerbaijani, 6% Russian, 3% Ossetian, 2% Abkhazian; Abkhazia declared and fought for independence in 1990s; South Ossetia declared independence in 2008; Russia aided both and continues to maintain military presence in each
Kazakhstan – mostly peaceful; 67% Kazakh, 18% Russian; Kazakhs are Muslims and speak a Turkic language
Kyrgyzstan – ethnic conflict; 69% Kyrgyz, 15% Uzbek, 9% Russian; Kyrgyz & Uzbeks are Muslims who speak Turkic languages; 2010 ethnic cleansing of Uzbeks by Kyrgyz
Regions of Conflict and Breakaway States in Former Soviet Union (USSR)
Eastern Ukraine – civil war, Russian involvement
Crimea – part of Ukraine, claimed by Russia
Transnistria = Pridnestrovian Republic, part of Moldova but claim independence
Abkhazia – part of Georgia, claim independence
South Ossetia – part of Georgia, claim independence
Nagorno-Karabakh = Republic of Artsakh, part of Azerbaijan but claim independence
Colonies
Some territories have not achieved self-determination and statehood
Colony: Territory legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent
BETTER TERM for today – “dependency”; colony may imply exploitation of people and resources which is not generally the function of these territories today
Current colonies or dependencies:
UN identifies 17 “non-self-governing territories” – largest and most populous is Western Sahara; all others are islands
French Polynesia, New Caledonia – in Pacific; controlled by France
U.S. controls Guam & American Samoa in Pacific and the U.S. Virgin Islands in Caribbean
Tokelau – in Pacific; controlled by New Zealand
Pitcairn (smallest in population) – in Pacific; controlled by U.K.
Gibraltar, St. Helena, Falkland Islands, Bermuda – in Atlantic; controlled by U.K.
Cayman Islands, Turks & Caicos, Montserrat, Anguilla, British Virgin Islands – in Caribbean; controlled by U.K.
Imperialism-
the policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military force, or other means, has significantly shaped the political geography of many regions, often leading to the establishment of overseas territories.
SUPRANATIONALISM
the process by which multiple countries come together to create a collective political or economic framework, enhancing cooperation and integration beyond national borders.
ORGANIZATIONS
European Union: A political and economic union of member states located primarily in Europe, aimed at fostering integration and unity among its members through common policies, trade agreements, and the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital.
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement): A trade agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico designed to eliminate trade barriers and promote economic cooperation among the three countries, facilitating the free flow of goods and services while enhancing regional economic integration.
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations): A regional organization comprising ten Southeast Asian countries, established to promote political and economic cooperation, cultural exchange, and regional stability, enhancing collaboration in matters such as trade, security, and sustainable development.
UNASUR
ARAB LEAGUES
ECOWAS
LAW OF THE SEA